Tag: AlexanderTheGreat

THE GROWTH OF CIVILIZATIONS

About: This is the third in a concise series of essays from the beginnings of our world, the Milky Way Galaxy in the Universe, and in it our Planet Earth. I started from Singularity banged into the Big Bang, gave life to the formation of life and the evolution of living beings, and breathed-in and out- to the arrival of the human species, among other flora and fauna-Dinosaurs included. Then I climbed the rise of ancient human civilisations, of religion, and the kind.

In this essay I battle it out from the early Roman Empire taking you to the threshold of Genghis Khan’s Mongol Empire-the largest contiguous empire in our history.

We left off at the foundation of the early Roman Empire in 625 BCE and arrived at the gates of the Imperial Roman Empire. So often, in the Empires of the world, there is an ‘early one’ and then a greater ‘Imperial one’.If you want to go back to the early stories you can do so at the following link.

https://kumargovindan.com/2026/03/07/the-dawn-ascent-of-civilizations/

Alexander the Great died in 323 BCE. He came up to the River Indus on India’s western boundary, defeated a mighty Indian King called Porus, termed the ‘religious way of life’ practiced by people on the other side of the Indus as ‘Hindu’, and left. Impressed by King Porus’s exceptional warrior skills, amazing courage, and nobility, Alexander made him an Ally and returned to him, his kingdom. Shortly after, his army, tired to the bone, by years of relentless war, refused to move farther into India’s Gangetic Plains and withdrew from northwestern India, creating a power vacuum in the region.

In many ways Alexander cleared the path for the Roman Empire, and many Kingdoms that followed. And also the immense history that branched from him.

About the time, 551 to 479 BCE, Confucius, a Chinese philosopher, teacher, and political thinker, considered the paragon of Chinese Sages, was beginning to impact life in China. He outlined the ethical and social philosophy that became the foundational ‘civil religion’ for Chinese society and that would shape Chinese life and culture for the next 2,000 years. Confucius believed that society functions best when everyone fulfils their roles with virtue, creating harmony between individuals, families, government, and even Heaven. Chaos arises when people neglect moral duties or act selfishly. Confucianism is not an organised religion, but its principles are deeply interwoven with Buddhism, Taoism, and Chinese folk religions. Confucius’s teachings rarely relied on reasoned argument, and ethical ideals were conveyed through allusion, innuendo, and even tautology.

The vacuum in northwestern India, left by the exit of Alexander was quickly filled by an ambitious Chandragupta Maurya, who born in a warrior clan of humble origins, and guided by a brilliant strategist, Chanakya, rose rapidly. He overthrew the hugely unpopular and brutal Nanda dynasty in Magadha (present day Bihar) and established the Mauryan Dynasty and Empire. He then went on to defeat the last remaining Greek General, Seleucus, married his daughter, and secured the western border, while rapidly expanding and transforming fragmented post-Alexander northern India into India’s first major unified Empire.

Chandragupta was influenced by Jainism and in later years abdicated his throne and became an ascetic. He died by fasting unto death at Sharavanabelagola (present day Karnataka), dejected by the tragic conditions prevailing during a 12 year famine in his Kingdom. His son Bindusara expanded deep into India’s Deccan region. And Bindusara’s son, Ashoka, who later became Ashoka the Great, consolidated and expanded East into Kalinga (India’s modern-day Odisha). Now, a quick leap of faith to Jainism.

Jainism has no single historical founder, and is viewed as beginning-less and endless: an eternal dharma/truth, reality that is periodically rediscovered and taught by a succession of enlightened beings called Tirthankaras (teaching Gods)- 24 of them. The first was Rishabhanatha, traditionally credited with establishing civilized society and the core principles of Jainism, in the remote past. The 24th and last was Mahavira, 599–527 BCE, a contemporary of Buddha. Mahavira systematised earlier doctrines, added emphasis on a fifth vow of Brahmacharya (celibacy), in addition to, Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfullness), Asteya (not-stealing), and Aparigraha (no possessions), organized the monastic community more clearly, and spread the teachings widely-making him the figure most people in the modern world associate with Jainism. Jains plainly regard him as a reformer and propagator. All Tirthankaras teach the same eternal truth; none invented the religion. Jainism does not believe in a creator God; and that the Universe functions on its own eternal laws. God is a realised human who has become a perfected soul.

Returning to the Mauryan Kingdom, Ashoka the Great, ruled from 268 to 232 BCE, and made the remarkable transformation from a conqueror to a promoter of peace and moral governance. After the bloody conquest of Kalinga, Ashoka is said to have experienced deep remorse and ‘converted to Buddhism’. However, Ashoka was already a follower of Buddhism before the Kalinga War, but the war marked a major turning point in deepening his commitment to Buddhist principles.

Ashoka renounced offensive warfare and introduced his policy of dharma—a code of moral conduct emphasising non-violence, tolerance, compassion, truthfulness, respect for all life. He built rock and pillar edicts across the Empire to promote his policies. He pioneered stone architecture in India with iconic pillars, like the Lion Capital of Sarnath-now India’s National Emblem- and other notable monuments that survive to this day. The four lions of India’s National Emblem face the four cardinal directions, symbolising power, courage, and the spread of Dharma.

Meanwhile, in Southern India, it was the beginning of the Sangam (assemblies of Tamil poets and scholars patronised by kings) Era, which started about 300 BCE (and went on up to 300 AD – total of 600 years). This is called the Golden age of Southern India marked by a flourishing Tamil culture, vibrant maritimer trade with the Rome and China, among others, and the rule of three dynasty Kingdoms: Cheras-Westen Coast/Kerala, Cholas-River Kaveri Delta, and Pandyas-Madurai, Southern India. The era is defined by Sangam literature, classified as Melkannaku (narrative) and Kilkanakku (didactic) works. Tolkappiyam, one for the 5 great Tamil Epics was written during this time. It also established the first rules of Tamil grammar and provided insights into the then social and political conditions.

Returning to the Roman Republic, it is about 50 BCE, and the mighty General and Statesman, Julius Caesar, hailing from a patrician family, rose through a combination of brilliant military success’s, political manoeuvring, and alliances to greatly expand Roman territory, gaining immense wealth, and building a loyal veteran army. The famous line, Veni, Vidi, Vinci – I came, I saw, I conquered– attributed to Julius Caesar, dramatically announces his arrival on the scene. Caesar was appointed and named dictator for life giving, him supreme, indefinite power by the Senate.

The Senate was created by Romulus, the first King of Rome, to advise the King on affairs of the Kingdom. The first 100 men appointed senators by Romulus are referred to as ‘fathers’ and the descendants of these men became the patrician class. Over time the Senate became the highest assembly of Ancient Rome constituting its aristocracy, and stayed that way up to the end of the Roman Empire.

Caesar had named his grandnephew and adopted son, Octavius, as his heir. Octavius defeated all of Caesar’s assassins-mainly Brutus and Mark Anthony (and, of course, the Egyptian Queen, Cleopatra) and consolidated power. The Senate granted him the honorific title Augustus (the revered one), which is the start of his rule as Rome’s first Emperor. The period of the Roman Empire from 27 BCE, marked the start of the Principate and the Pax Romana, through roughly the 6th century CE and encompasses a fascinating era of large-scale empires and civilizations across Eurasia.

On his part, Caesar introduced the Julian calendar, expanded citizenship, restructured provinces, initiated public works, and centralized authority-changes that laid the groundwork for imperial governance.The Julian Calendar is a solar-based calendar with a 365-day year, adding a leap day every four years. It was a major reform of the old Roman system, setting 12 months with a 365.25-day average year. It was largely replaced by the Gregorian Calendar in the year 1582, due to a minor drift in the number of days.

Fearing that Julius Caesar would plant himself as a Monarch and destroy established Roman traditions, a group of Senators colluded to assassinate him in the Senate House, on the Ides of March -15 March 44BCE. He was stabbed 22 times and is said to have uttered the iconic, “Et tu, Brute?” (“You too, Brutus?”) upon seeing his close friend Brutus among the conspirators-though this is likely from Shakespeare’s play rather than historical fact. The conspirators claimed they were defending the Republic, but the assassination plunged Rome into chaos.

The history of Roman is incomplete without the story of The Catilinarian Conspiracy in 63 BCE, which happened under the Consuls, Marcus Tullius Cicero and Gaius Antonius Hybrida. During this time Julius Caesar was just beginning to rise through the ranks.

Lucius Sergius Catilina-Catiline-a Roman patrician politician and soldier was the central figure in one of the most dramatic failed coups of the Roman Republic. Catiline is also singled out as ‘one of the most interesting possibilities in the history of the world’ viewed not just as a failed traitor but as a charismatic, high-stakes gambler who embodied the raw potential of a different path for Rome-and, by extension, for Western civilization. Catiline fascinates because he stood at the crossroads of the Republic’s death throes. He was a talented, ambitious aristocrat who chose open rebellion against the system that denied him the status he believed was his birthright. His failure helped preserve the Republic for a few more decades-but it also highlighted the fractures that would soon destroy it. That tension between personal ambition, social unrest, and constitutional breakdown makes him not merely a footnote in Roman history, but one of its most tantalizing ‘roads not taken’. In the end, Catiline was killed in war, trying to overthrow the Republic.

Now, to the Common Era-CE-(or AD-Anno Domini, in the year of the Lord, Jesus). Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, was born around 6 to 4 BCE in Bethlehem, and raised in Nazareth, Galilee. He was a Jewish teacher and a religious leader considered to be the Son of God, who taught a message of love, forgiveness, repentance, and the coming of the Kingdom of God, performing miracles and gathering disciples in Roman-occupied Judea. Jesus was crucified in CE 30 or 33 in Jerusalem under the Roman Empire’s Governor of Judea, Pontius Pilate. Jesus is said to have risen from the dead, forming the foundation of Christianity as the Son of God and Saviour.

The Romans themselves practiced a polytheistic religion simply called ‘Roman Religion’, worshipping many Gods and Goddesses heavily influenced by Greek mythology.

Jesus taught in a direct, often parabolic style- using stories, metaphors, analogies, focusing on the heart, love, and the Kingdom of God rather than complex rules. Some of the best are: Love your neighbour as yourself; do to others as you would have them do to you; forgive others just as God forgives you, be merciful, as your heavenly Father is merciful, judge not, and you will not be judged; the greatest in the Kingdom is the servant of all, be humble like a child; the World belongs to the poor in spirit, the meek, the merciful, and those who hunger for righteousness; have childlike faith and trust in God as a loving Father; do not worry about tomorrow.

Jesus often used parables about lost sheep, prodigal sons, good Samaritans, and hidden treasures to show that God’s love is for everyone-especially the outsiders, sinners, and marginalized — and that true life springs from a personal relationship with God rather than religious performance.

While Jesus was spreading his message of love, we return to the Sangam period of South India. In about the 1st century CE, a Chola King, Karikala Chola won a famous battle defeating a confederacy of the Cheras, Pandyas, and other chiefs, marking the rise of the Early Chola Empire (Another Chola Empire called the Imperial Cholas would rise in 848 CE). He is the greatest early Chola King. He built the engineering marvel, the Kallanai (Grand Anicut) Dam, an ancient dam across the Kaveri River near Tiruchirappalli. This structure, still functional after 2,000 years, regulated floods, prevented droughts, and boosted agriculture in the delta-one of the world’s oldest functional water-regulating structures. The dam is constructed from rough stones, cleverly placed to withstand the river’s flow without the use of binding modern-day cement. The design was a simple, yet ingenious check dam that runs parallel to the riverbank, diverting water rather than storing massive amounts like modern reservoirs.

Karikala Chola enhanced trade, irrigation networks, and prosperity. Poems like Pattinappalai glorify his rule, his port city, and his generosity to poets. The early capitals were Uraiyur or Tiruchirapalli and Kaveripattinam.

About this period, also in the 1st century CE, Kaundinya, a legendary Indian mariner, regarded as one of the earliest Indian sailors, undertook a long-distance sea voyage across the Indian Ocean to Southeast Asia, sailing from present day Odisha.

Kaundinya was probably a merchant seeking opportunities in the lucrative maritime networks of the time. He cleverly used the monsoon winds to cross the Bay of Bengal, carrying goods like textiles and jewellery. Upon reaching the Mekong Delta,Vietnam, he was attacked by pirates and local forces led by a formidable warrior princess, Soma, a member of the indigenous Naga clan. Kaundinya fought back successfully and fended off the attackers. But his ship was breached and had to be grounded for repairs. Rather than escalating into prolonged conflict, the encounter turned into one of mutual respect and admiration. Soma, impressed by Kaundinya’s prowess and wisdom, proposed marriage. He accepted, and their union symbolized a cultural and political alliance. Kaundinya became her consort, and together they co-founded the ancient Kingdom of Funan, with its early capital at Vyadhapura (in present day Cambodia). The dynasty drew inspiration from Indian models of governance, law, and brahmanical traditions, marking the beginning of significant Indian cultural influence in the region-through trade, Hinduism, and administrative practices-while blending with local customs. Kaundinya was the first Indian mariner to have made such a impactful transoceanic journey and left a lasting historical footprint. Funan became a prosperous trading hub, facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and religions between India, China, and beyond.

Recently, Kaundinya’s legacy was revived in India through the INSV Kaundinya, a modern Indian Navy sailing vessel built using ancient ‘stitched-plank’ techniques (inspired by Ajanta cave paintings) and inducted in 2025. It honoured Kaundinya as a symbol of India’s forgotten seafaring heritage, with a voyage retracing ancient Indian Ocean routes. It highlighted him as a pivotal figure who demonstrated India’s early maritime capabilities at a time when long sea voyages were rare and often viewed with caution.

While Kaundinya was settling down into a happy married life, the Roman Empire was under decline, on its last wobbly legs. And in India, about 380 CE, a new Empire was rising, with the establishment of the Gupta Dynasty under Chandragupta II. The Gupta Era is known as a the ‘Golden Age’ of ancient India for advancements in mathematics, astronomy, literature, and art.

Chandragupta II, also known as Chandragupta Vikramaditya, 375–415 CE, was the greatest emperor of the Gupta Empire. He was the son of Samudragupta, who vastly expanded the Gupta Kingdom founded by his father Chandragupta I. Samudragupta is often called the ‘Napoleon of India’ -due his military strategies-and remained undefeated in battle, until the end of his reign. Chandragupta Vikramaditya built upon his father’s successful military campaigns and expanded the empire significantly defeating the Western Kshatrapas (Shakas) in Gujarat and Malwa, which brought vast wealth and access to western trade routes. His reign marked the peak of Gupta prosperity, with flourishing art, literature, science, and culture.

Kalidasa, who was a poet in the Gupta Court wrote the epic Sakuntala. He is often regarded as the greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist of classical India- also called the ‘Shakespeare of India’. The play tells the romantic story of King Dushyanta and Sakuntala and explores themes of love, separation, and reunion. Their son, Bharata, becomes the legendary ancestor of the Bharata dynasty (after whom India is named). Mathematician Aryabhata lived in the period. Zero was invented. The ancient Gupta text Kamasutra by the Indian scholar Vatsyayana is widely considered to be the standard work on human sexual behaviour in Sanskrit literature. Nalanda University was established. Chess was developed during this time. The outstanding paintings in the Ajanta and Ellora caves came into being, and it was a period of revival of Hinduism and tolerance of Jainism and Buddhism.

The Roman Empire collapsed in 476 CE. And about a century later, a new religion came into being, ‘invented’ by Mahomet, in the manner an adventurer, say Columbus, discovered a new continent, say America. Mahomet, later becoming Prophet Muhammad, laid the foundation of Islam in 610 CE. He took off from the Kaaba- the cubic building, often called the ‘Cubic Temple’- in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, which today remains the central shrine of Islam. It houses a reddish-Black Stone, semi-circular, six inches high, eight broad (said to have fallen from a meteor, from the sky) Hobal, a prominent pre-Islamic Arabian deity, among roughly 360 pagan images housed in or around the Kaaba, before Islam. It included another Idol, Al-Lat, or Al-Lah or was probably another name for Hobal. A few feet from the Cube was the well, Zem-Zem, rediscovered by Mohamet’s grandfather. This well with its brackish and luke-warm water is said to have been first discovered by Hagar, Abraham’s maid servant who gave birth to his son Ishmael (Ismail) and had to flee the wrath of his wife Sarah.

According to the Bible, Abraham (known as Ibrahim in Islam) is widely regraded as foundational patriarch of both Judaism (Jews) and Islam, as well as a key figure in Christianity. He is the central ancestral and spiritual figure linking the three major Abrahamic religions. Abraham’s descendants through Isaac and Jacob inherited the land of Canaan(modern-day Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan). Jews traditionally trace their lineage and national identity directly to Abraham as the founder of the Jewish people. He is often called ‘Avraham Avinu’ (Abraham our father) in Jewish tradition. Muslims trace the Arab people and, by extension, the Prophet Muhammad’s lineage through Abraham’s firstborn son Ismail. Islamic tradition holds that Abraham and Ismail rebuilt or founded the Kaaba in Mecca as a house of worship.

When Prophet Muhammad-after establishing Islam- along with his followers, conquered Mecca in 630 CE, he ordered the removal and destruction of all idols and images from the Kaaba, rededicating the structure to the worship of the one God (Allah) alone. No pre-Islamic idols, including Hobal, remain inside or associated with the Kaaba today. The site is under Saudi Arabian management and continues to host millions of pilgrims annually. The Kaaba has been rebuilt and renovated many times over history (due to floods, wars, etc.), but its core role and the Black Stone’s placement remain unchanged in Islamic practice.

Prophet Muhammad’s companions wrote and compiled the Koran-consisting of about 114 Suras (Chapters) based on oral revelations to him by Allah, through the Angel Gabriel. When Mohamet was 25 years old he accepted a marriage proposal from a rich widow, Khadija, 40 years old, who helped him with the revelations. Previously he had worked for her as a driver in a caravan expedition. These revelations occurred over about 23 years. Muhammad, who was illiterate, recited the revelations to his companions, who memorized and wrote them down on materials like palm leaves, bones, and parchment. After Muhammad’s death in 632 CE, the revelations were compiled into a single book- the Koran-under the first Islamic Caliph, Abu Bakr.

Prophet Muhammad first launched Islam in Mecca, where he faced stubborn resistance and persecution and had to migrate to Medina (the Hijra). Later he returned to conquer Mecca. The original intent was to get back business to his home town as the rich caravan cities had fallen into abandonment and ruin. The people at that time lived off the transcontinental road traffic: lodging, feeding and robbing travellers. But then, the change Muhammad imposed upon the world through Islam outstrips that of many Adventurers, Explorers, Kings, Emperors in history, and shows the difference a single man can make. And one of the biggest Empires to rise with Islam at the core was the Ottoman Empire.

Returning to India, the Cholas under Vijayalaya Chola, a descendant of Karikala Chola- of the Early Cholas- rose again from obscurity to run a memorable second innings of the Chola Dynasty. He exploited the intense rivalry and frequent wars between the Pallavas and Pandyas, which weakened both major powers, creating a power vacuum in the fertile Kaveri delta region. Vijayalaya quickly filled it, when around 848–850 CE with a well-organized military force he captured Thanjavur and then there was no looking back. His son Aditya Chola I, who succeeded him expanded further laying the foundation of the Imperial Chola Empire. After Aditya’s death, his son Parantaka took over and ruled for about 48 years. He was one of the most powerful early Imperial Cholas. He comprehensively defeated the Pandyas and earned the title ‘Maduraikonda’ (Conqueror of Madurai).

And after a brief period of weak Chola Rulers, emerged Arulmozhivarman who later became Rajaraja Chola I (985–1014 CE)- the real Architect of the Empire and the greatest ruler of the early Imperial phase. He consolidated and vastly expanded the Chola Empire conquering the entire Pandya and Chera kingdoms. He also defeated the Sinhalese King Mahinda V and occupied northern Sri Lanka. He launched successful naval expeditions to the Maldives.

The Cholas were followers of Hinduism, specifically the Shaivite (Shiva-worshipping) tradition. They were great patrons of Shaivism, building magnificent temples dedicated to Lord Shiva. Rajaraja Chola built the iconic Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur-now a UNESCO World Heritage Site and architectural marvel. He took the title Rajaraja (King of Kings).

His son Rajendra Chola I (1014–1044 CE), an equally powerful Chola emperor, continued and even surpassed his father’s achievements. He completed the conquest of Sri Lanka-annexing the entire island; launched a massive naval expedition against the Srivijaya Empire (present-day Indonesia, Malaysia, and Sumatra); defeated several Southeast Asian kingdoms and secured trade routes. He Conquered Kalinga, and parts of Bengal in the north and reached the Ganges River- earning the title ‘Gangaikonda’ (Conqueror of the Ganges). He founded a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram and built the magnificent Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple (another Brihadeeswara style temple) in present day Ariyalur District of Tamil Nadu. His reign marked the peak territorial extent of the Chola Empire: from the Ganges in the north to Sri Lanka in the south, and with influence across the Indian Ocean.

One of the last Cholas, Rajaraja II generally ruled in peace up to CE 1173. In total, the Cholas ruled for about 400 glorious years.

For more angles on the Great Cholas read:

https://kumargovindan.com/2025/08/13/freewheeling-9/

In my next adventure, I take you through Genghis Khan’s Mongol Empire, India’s Prithviraj Chauhan and the rumblings of the invasion of India. And the great Ottoman Empire, ending this series of essays.

The Dawn & Ascent of Civilizations

About: In my previous post I wrote about the origin of the Universe, from the Big Bang, through the beginning of life, up to the sole surviving human species: Homo sapiens-that’s who we are. In this post, I take you from the Hunter-gatherer mode through the formation of the first human Civilizations and Empires, up to the beginning of the Roman Empire. Again, this is an attempt to bring together various stories on our ancient history, with brevity mostly on my side and minimum technical jargon. (Image Credit: Canva AI).

First, a quick chronological recap of my earlier post – years from the present:

Big Bang: 13.70 billion; Formation of our Galaxy The Milky Way, the Solar System and Planet Earth 4.6 billion; First Bacteria-3.8 million; Oxygenation of Earth-2.4 billion: Multi-cellular Algae-1 billion; Multicellular organisms-550 million; Dinosaurs-230 million; Hominids, Southern ape, Last Common Grandmother of Humans and Chimpanzees-4 to7 million; Homo species-200,000 to 300,000; Only surviving Human species, Homo sapiens-13,000. In case you missed the story, or you want to go back in time and read again, you can do it at:

https://kumargovindan.com/2026/02/05/origin-big-bang-to-humans/

Hunter-Gatherers to Agriculture

We humans lived as simple hunter-gatherers for the vast majority, about 95%, of our existence, as small, nomadic groups foraging wild plants, hunting animals; using increasingly sophisticated stone tools; learning to make and control fire; creating art-mostly as cave paintings; developing complex social structures and, most importantly, language. Population remained low (a few million globally), with high mobility and intimate knowledge of the environment.

Language was key, used to communicate among humans, describe things, anchor learnings, build knowledge (where to hunt?), and share information, which other animals could not do as smartly as humans did, thanks to man’s ability to think. The languages that emerged in different parts of the world, from grouping of humans, and growth of civilizations, are very different from each other, though there are hints of some co-mingling in common-sounding words. This period is also called the Cognitive Revolution.

Modern humans migrated out of Africa in waves, reaching Eurasia, Australia (65,000 years ago), and eventually the Americas (15,000 to 20,000 years ago). Hunter-gatherer lifestyles continued, adapting to diverse environments, until the end of the last Ice Age, specifically the last glacial period -Peak Cold or Last Glacial Maximum – which occurred approximately 115,000 to 17,000 years ago. During this time, massive ice sheets, often 3 to 4 kilometres thick, covered large parts of North America and Europe, lowering sea levels by about 125 meters.

Recall, Dinosaurs ruled our Planet Earth for a ‘massive’ 165 million years, and humans had still not evolved at that time. But during the Ice Age, man was around with other kinds of ‘Dinosaur-sized’ animals.

The Ice Age animals were mostly large-bodied megafauna adapted to freezing, shifting environments, with iconic species, including Woolly Mammoths, Glyptodon -an extinct group of large, herbivorous Armadillos- Saber-toothed Cats, Mastodons, Woolly Rhinoceroses, and Giant Ground Sloths. These animals coexisted with early humans including the Human species of Neanderthals, in Europe and North America before going extinct roughly 10,000–13,500 years ago, due to environmental changes and maybe because of the dominating force of Homo sapiens. Could man have wiped-out the Mammoths (for their tusks, wool, and meat, for survival)?

The single most transformative shift occurred after the Ice Age ended. Humans began domesticating plants for food, such as, wheat, barley, rice, and maize; and animals such as sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs. Call it the Agricultural Revolution. This allowed sedentary, permanent settlements and food storage of surpluses, population growth, specialisation of labor, utensils making-pottery, cloth making-weaving, and more advanced tools. This transition from foraging to farming was gradual, but revolutionary, enabling the rise of villages, and eventually towns and cities. Agricultural surpluses supported larger, denser populations and social complexity.

On the tools front, man gradually transitioned from using stone tools to those made from advance metalworking. The Bronze Age, about 3,300 BCE to 1,200 BCE, saw the use of copper-tin alloys for tools and weapons. The Iron Age followed with man learning to make and use Iron, and eventually leading to making of steel-man needed steel-blade swords to fight his own kind, and for survival.

Then came the first human civilizations, made up of urban societies with writing, monumental architecture, centralised governance, and social hierarchy. These were founded predominantly in river valleys-for life-giving water, enabling cultivation of flora, and raising fauna, for human consumption.

On the sidelines, there is substantial evidence suggesting man did eat man, his own kind-cannibalism-throughout human evolution, in multiple contexts such as nutritional survival, ritualistic purposes, or cultural reasons. Cannibalism wasn’t universal or constant and was prevalent in early species such as Homo erectus, Neanderthals, and early Homo sapiens.

Ancient Civilizations

The earliest human civilization sprung in what is called the Fertile Crescent Area, which is a crescent-shaped region in the Middle East, often called the Cradle of Civilization, where early agriculture and settled societies began. It included: Mesopotamia-the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, mostly modern-day Iraq, plus parts of Syria, Turkey, and Iran; the Levant-modern Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, ancient Israel; and some extensions to the Nile Valley in Egypt.

There were also 5 other pristine Cradles of Civilization across the World: 1-Ancient Egypt along the River Nile; 2-Mesoamerica-the region spanning southern Mexico through Central America (Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica); 3-Andes, Lake Titicaca; 4-Indus Valley, India; and 5-China, the Yellow River.

The first ever human civilization was that of the Sumerians, in southern Mesopotamia, which emerged about 4,500 to 4,000 BCE. It is often regarded as one of the world’s first true civilizations, with development of independent City-States such as Uruk, Ur, Eridu, Kish, Lagash, and Nippur, which had their own rulers called Ensi or Kings, temples, governments, writing-cuneiform- irrigation systems, and organized society. They also had conflicts for dominance.

The Sumerians were later conquered by the Akkadians leading to the establishment of The Akkadian Empire-probably the first Empire or Superpower of the World-of Mesopotamia, founded by Sargon the Great. The Empire’s capital city was Akkad, which was the seat of a centralised government, uniting the Sumerian and Akkadian regions. This Empire was built upon the Sumerian culture and was multi-ethnic, blending semitic Akkadian with Sumerian. It had a system of taxation, planned economy, and engaged in military conquests. It marked a shift from City-States to Imperial Rule.

The political hegemony that was decisively taken-over by the Akkadians reached its peak when King Hammurabi of Babylonia united all of southern Mesopotamia and Babylonia, which became the great and influential centre of Mesopotamian culture. One of the first ever laws of society, called the Code of Hammurabi, was written in old Babylonian cuneiform. The Sumerian cuneiform writing system – the world’s first writing system-was adopted by the Akkadians. Cuneiform writing is characterised by wedge-shaped impressions pressed on soft callus tablets using a reed stylus. The Akkadian Empire collapsed about 2,150 BCE, due to internal rebellions, weak successors, economic strain, severe drought, and invasions by other Rulers.

The very first spoken language used by humans cannot be identified with certainty, and there is no direct evidence of what it was, which Civilization spoke it, or an exact year it began. Anthropologists estimate that the complex, fully modern human language (with grammar, syntax, and the ability to express abstract ideas) emerged gradually as Homo sapiens evolved.

Meanwhile, the Egyptian Civilization grew along the River Nile, and they developed a form of writing known as hieroglyphs – a pictorial writing system consisting of hundreds of symbols representing sound, ideas, and objects. Ancient Egypt is the second cradle of civilization: it was a remarkably stable society defined by magnificent architecture- the great Pyramids of Giza and the Valley of Kings- divine pharaohs, and rich cultural, artistic, and scientific advancements. The civilization flourished due to the predictable Nile flooding, creating a wealthy agricultural base and a powerful and enduring culture. Egyptians believed in after-life, which led to mummification of their dead. The Egyptian civilization fell under foreign rule, starting with the Persians, and later became part of the Roman Empire.

About this time in what was undivided India, was the third cradle of civilisation – the Indus Valley Civilization(IVC) which emerged in the cities of Harappa, Mohenjadoro, Dholavira, Ganweriwala, Lothai, and Kalibangan – all going back to as far as 3,300 BCE. It spanned much of northwestern India, Pakistan and northeastern Afghanistan, along the River Indus. I am expanding more on the India story, digressing into Genetics, in an attempt to clear the cobwebs on the origins of the people of India.

When the ancient, out-of-Africa hunter-gatherers spread out and migrated to India -and beyond- about 65,000 years-ago, those who settled in the southern peninsular India formed what is called the deeply indigenous Ancient Ancestral South Indians (AASI) hunter-gatherers. The ‘undisturbed’ tribals (e.g., Sentinelese) of Andaman & Nicobar Islands are ‘living proof’ of this ancient unalloyed ancestry. The population of the IVC developed from this AASI, Neolithic farming communities in northwestern South Asia, and Iranian farmer-related ancestry (from earlier migrations). It had zero detectable Eurasian Steppe ancestry. In the IVC, people practiced early agriculture, animal domestication, and led a settled village life. The civilization was indigenous, with technologically advanced farmers and traders. They built the world’s first planned urban cities with sophisticated drainage systems and baths. They were largely a peaceful war-free civilization, but had fortified cities.

Then the IVC mysteriously collapsed about 1,900 BCE, probably due to change in course of rivers, drought, and other environmental factors, which caused the IVC people to migrate to other parts of India. Those that went northern/western mixed with incoming migrants from the Eurasian Steppes (Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan – Yamnaya culture), to form the mixture that we call the Ancestral North Indians (ANI). Those who went southern/eastern mixed further with local AASI groups, forming Ancestral South Indians (ASI) (whose direct descendants today include many southern tribal groups).

The Vedic Aryans, language, and culture emerged within this newly admixed ANI, during the post-IVC period. There was no ‘Aryan race’ per se, in any biological, genetic, or anthropological sense. The term Aryan (Indo-Aryan or Vedic Aryans) represents a cultural linguistic group, and not a race of people. It means people who lived in what was called Aryavarta (described in Vedic texts as the land of the Aryas), historically referring to as the northern Indian subcontinent, primarily the Indo-Gangetic Plain, which boundaries included regions between the Himalayas and the Vindhya mountains. The Aryans composed the Vedas and spoke early forms of Sanskrit, and Vedic culture flourished in this region. The Rig Veda, one of the first regions scriptures, was composed between 4,000 and 3,000 years ago in old Sanskrit and passed down orally for 2,000 years before being written down. The Aryans practiced a Vedic Religion widely regarded as a major precursor or one of the key foundational strands that eventually evolved into what we now call Hinduism. They worshipped a plethora of deities (Indra, Agni, Varuna, Soma) and conducted Fire sacrifices (Yajnas), recited Ritual hymns and had priestly traditions. They had concepts like rita (cosmic order) and early ideas of dharma.

Around this time, corresponding to the Vedic Aryans, in the north (1500 BCE onward), the ASI populations practiced indigenous animistic and folk traditions-not anything resembling organized Vedic religion. These local beliefs gradually blended with incoming Vedic elements to form the diverse synthesis of the Hinduism, or Sanatana Dharma, of today.

Over time, the ANI and the ASI mixed dramatically in India, producing the genetic gradient seen in modern India and South Asia. The result is that everyone in India today is a mix of ancestry related to West Eurasians, diverse East Asian and South Asian. No Group in India can claim genetic purity. Most Genetic studies have come to the conclusion that all Indians north, south, east, west have IVC genes. Most of the migrants that came into India were male, and they mixed with the women of mostly the ANI and ASI to form the collision that is India- in fact it leans almost all towards the ASI.

The Dravidian region- primarily southern India- typically have higher ASI ancestry and lower ANI compared to northern Indo-European speakers. Genetic evidence links higher ASI proportions strongly with Dravidian languages today. The emergence of Dravidians as a linguistic and cultural group is tied to the formation of the ASI. More information will be out, once the ‘formal reports’ on the discoveries at Keeladi, Sivagalai, and Adichanallur, and other spots, near present-day Madurai, Tamil Nadu State, is published.

Going back to the Aryans. If you heard something called the Aryan Invasion Theory, forget it: there was nothing of the sort, at best migration and mixing of various lineages of people to form the Aryan culture.

The fourth cradle of civilization is that of the Chinese along the Yellow River. Ancient agricultural societies flourished such as the Yangsho and Longshan cultures leading to early dynasties such as the Xia and Shang around 2,100 to 1,600 BCE. The Yellow River provided fertile soil especially for millet farming, but was also called China’s Sorrow due to catastrophic, frequent flooding and shaped future complex water management techniques.

One of China’s first dynasties, the Xia Dynasty was founded by not by a conqueror or a warrior, but by a simple public servant, an Engineer, Da Yu, who incredibly ‘tamed’ the Yellow River. Legend says that his father called Gun, was given the task of controlling the seasonal devastating floods of the River, by the then King of the region. He failed with his technique of building dykes across the river, and was ordered by the King to be put to death-cut to pieces. His son Da Yu, who later became the ‘Great Yu’, then took on the job, and working ferociously hard, found a way. He confused the River by dividing it, having channels dug alongside to whisk the flood water to other rivers, and in turn to lakes. He came upon the idea by using the native intelligence of Villages along the river. The King was mighty impressed by his diligence and passed on the throne to him. And Da Yu founded the Xia Dynasty, the first in China.

The fifth is the Mesoamerican Civilizations flourishing around 1,500 BCE in present day Mexico and Central America. They were advanced interconnected societies known for majestic architecture, complex calendars, astronomy and writing systems. The harboured the Olmec, Maya, Zapotec, and Aztec cultures and Empires.

The sixth is the Andean Civilization of South America. They stretched down the spine of the Andes Mountain range from Southern Colombia to Ecuador and Peru. The Caral or Norte Chicho Civilization of coastal Peru is the most ancient dating back to 3,500 BCE. It relied on maritime-coastal fishermen- and agricultural resources- inland trade. It is best known for awe-inspiring architecture. The site of Caral contains six large pyramids, structures with the largest measuring over 60 feet. They lacked writing or pottery but used a system called quipu – knotted textiles- for record keeping. They were largely peaceful with not much evidence of warfare. The Andean Civilization like the other pristine civilizations developed independently of external influences. They are noteworthy for domesticating a wide variety of crops such as potatoes, peppers, peanuts, manioc(cassava), chocolate and coca. They figured out irrigation systems for desert farms. They were also known for building an extensive road system and textile weaving.

Kingdoms & Empires

Going back to the Fertile Crescent, and diving into the world of early Kingdoms, in the region covering much of Canaan (modern-day Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Jordon) the Ancient Kingdom of Israel emerged. It was established around 1,020 BCE, formed by uniting 12 tribes as a United Monarchy under King Saul; consolidated under King David; and expanded under King Solomon before splitting around 922 BCE, into Kingdom of Israel in the north and the Kingdom of Judah in the south (according to the Hebrew Bible). The northern kingdom lasted until its conquest by Assyria in 721 BCE. The ancient Israel religion was known as Yahwism, which is a predecessor to Judaism. It began as polytheism and shifted towards monolatry. Yahweh was the primary deity. Judaism is the world’s oldest Abrahamic religion, and the way of life is based on the Torah- the compilation of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible. It is based a covenant between God and the Jewish people.

After the fall of the Akkadian Empire, came the Assyrian Empire (900 to 600 BCE). The Assyrian King Ashurbanipal was its last great king and was known as one of the most barbaric rulers of his time. But one of his greatest achievements is the construction of the Library of Ashurbanipal -a collection of texts and documents of various genres, perhaps comprising over 100,000 texts at its height. It was not surpassed until the construction of the Library of Alexandria, several centuries later. The Assyrians used new warfare techniques to win wars and conquer lands. They paved the way for the foundation of the Achaemendian Empire by Persia’s, Cyrus the Great.

Cyrus’s reign defined the history of Iran for well over a millennium and future Persian empires often viewed the Achaemenid era with respect and as the ideal example to emulate. To this end, he remains a cult figure in modern Iran, with his tomb serving as a spot of reverence for millions of the country’s citizens. When Alexander the Great conquered Persia and passed by his damaged tomb he stayed a long time, thoughtfully looking at the inscribed words (in Persian), “…I am Cyrus the Founder of the Persian Empire. Envy me not the little earth that covers my body” and promptly ordered the tomb to be repaired. Darius the Great, who followed Cyrus was known for his administrative genius, building great projects, and his benevolence toward the diverse peoples in his rule.

Ancient Persia gave the world one of the oldest continuously practiced monotheistic faiths, Zoroastrianism. It was founded by Prophet Zoroaster and centres around worship of one God- the Creator- Ahura Mazda. It emphasizes a cosmic struggle between good and evil urging humanity to choose ‘Asha’ (truth) through good thoughts, good worship, and good deeds. Wow, awfully simple to follow!

Meanwhile, the Ancient Greek Civilization was getting its foot-hold in Greece, limping out of its Dark Ages (1200 – 800 BCE) which saw collapse of its civilization. The Greek civilization, arising around the 8th century BCE, was a foundational Western culture. Known as the birthplace of democracy (specifically in Athens), it was a collection of competitive Aegean City-States like Athens and Sparta that shared a language and religion. Much of the world’s cultural heritage descends from a very small population of landowners, farmers, and sailors during a surprisingly short space of time. They organized themselves into a radically democratic government, held as a high ideal the dignity and freedom of an individual free man, produced sculpture and architecture, which set the standards by which these arts are still measured. And they laid the foundations of much of the World’s philosophy, mathematics and sciences through great thinkers such as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Pythogoras, Euclid, and Archimedes. It also saw the origin of Theatre, the Olympic Games, and advanced epic poetry such as Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey. Ancient Greeks had a pantheon of Gods led by 12 Olympians: Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Ares, Hephaestus, Aphrodite, Hermes, and Dionysus who resided on Mount Olympus in Greece.

The Persian Empire came to an end with the rise of Macedon, Greece, and foundation of the Kingdom of Macedonians by King Philip who himself had an extraordinary career in building his Kingdom. His son Alexander the Great went on to establish one of the largest Empires in history stretching from Greece to northwestern India. Alexander is considered one of history’s greatest and most successfully military commanders-in a career of about 20 years he never lost a single battle. He was tutored by the ancient Greek Philosopher, Aristotle. The story goes that whenever news was brought that his father Philip had captured a Town or won a great battle, Alexander would worry, “My father will go on conquering until there is nothing extraordinary left for you and me to do”. Alexander brought The Achaemenid Persian Empire to a fatal end with the defeat of its last king, Darius III in the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BCE. The defeat led to the collapse of the Achaemenid Empire and Alexander was able to capture key Persian cities such as Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis. Alexander died young, at the age of 33, and in many ways he made the history of the world. The Greek Empire peaked in the 5th to 4th century BCE before being conquered by Rome in 146 BCE.

The Early Roman Empire was founded in 625 BCE as a City-State, in the areas of ancient Italy knows a Etruria and Latium. It went through a Period of Kings (ruled by about 6 Kings) phase, a Republican Rome phase (510 to 31 BCE) leading to the mighty Imperial Roman Empire after 31 BCE. I’ll cover the Roman Empire in the upcoming, next article.

About this time in the 5th Century BCE, Buddhism originated in India in the ancient Kingdom of Magadha- region in the Eastern Ganges Plain. Its founder Siddhartha Gautam, was born a Prince. He renounced his royal life, sought enlightenment through asceticism and meditation, and attained awakening (bodhi) under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya (in modern-day Bihar State of India).

To conclude this part of history, a quick story on numerals.

The system of numerals with the use of zero first originated in India. At that time its tremendous potential in science, mathematics, engineering and trade was not widely realised – not universalised. E.g. Archimedes struggled with a number system and had to invent one on his own to fit his ‘wild numbers’. He did not know about Indian numerals then. It was left to the Arab Scholars to embrace the Indian system brought to their lands by Arab Traders who travelled to India. Yet, it was not generally used in the Arab World until a thousand years later. Later medieval Europe adopted the Indian numerals from the Arabs – resulting in the misnomer ‘Arabic Numerals’. But then it took centuries for Indian numerals to come into everyday use – the way we use it today.

In summary, humans lived as:

Hunter-gatherers – about 290,000 years ago; Farming and a settled life – about 12,000 years ago; First Civilizations, Kingdoms, and Empires – about 5,500 years ago.

Each transition dramatically increased population, complexity, and environmental impact, shaping the world we live in today.

We are at the doorstep of the Roman Empire. Once the door opens we run through other Empires such as the Mauryas of India; building of the Great Wall of China, Genghis Khan, the Cholas…and the beginning of Christianity and Islam.