About: This is the fourth in a concise series of essays from the beginning of our world, from primitive life through civilizations, small Kingdoms, large Empires to the doorstep of our modern world of nations. It’s about memorable stories of conquerors and adventurers who wrote their life in blood and sweat. The tale of Genghis Khan is a fascinating one, so is that of Prithviraj Chauhan; the wealth of Mansa Musa of Africa; the rise of the Ottoman Empire; the grandeur of India’s Vijayanagar Empire; the founder of China’s Ming Dynasty; and last but not least, not an Empire Builder, but a hollowed adventurer called Christopher Columbus. (Image is Canva AI generated. 25 April 2026)

About the year 1175 CE, somewhere in Mongolia, a fatherless boy, abandoned by his tribe in the harsh environment of the Steppes with his mother and six siblings, was out hunting. Clutching a bow in one hand, he was inching his way, on his stomach, towards a deer. He slipped out an arrow with a curious hole in its point and sent it flying. The cunningly designed arrow made a distinctive hiss, causing the deer to look up startled-at exactly the right moment ‘to invite’ the arrowhead through its throat. The boy was fearless, brutal, exceptionally clever, and had a talent for reading others minds (perhaps, animals included). And he learnt most of these skills from his mother, Hoelun, in the grind of hard life in the forest.

Hoelun was an extraordinarily resilient woman of great courage and determination who single-handedly kept the family alive through extreme poverty. They foraged for wild fruits, roots, and plants; hunted small game like marmots, rodents, and fish in the Onon River area; and even scavenged ox carcasses. The boy, Temujin, was born in the year, about 1162 CE, near the Onon River in Khentii province, Mongolia. Eventually he would grow up to be called Genghis Khan, a genius Mongolian warrior-ruler, one of the greatest conquerors known to man, in the history of the world.

When Temujin was 9 years old, in better times, he was betrothed to a 10 year girl called Borte of another tribe, in a political alliance, as was the norm. The actual wedding would be held when they came of age. His father, a Tribal Chief, had made the arrangements, leaving Temujin to stay behind and become friends with the tribe of his future in-laws. On the way back, the father was killed by a rival Tribe, resulting in Temujin, Hoelun, and the siblings landing in the forest.

After about seven years in the wilderness, Temujin set out to reunite with Borte and marry her, by garnering the support of the relatives he could find. However, soon after the Wedding his family was attacked by yet another rival Tribe and they abducted his new wife. Temujin’s organised extraction of Borte, in a daring raid, is one of the key events, which set him on the path to becoming a Conqueror-and a ruthless one at that. He exterminated the Tribe that abducted his wife. And enslaved their women. He then rallied and built alliances to get back his father’s title and was soon elected a Khan of all Mongols, and given the title of Genghis(Universal) Khan (Ruler).

Over the years, Genghis Khan stayed loyal to his first wife Borte, even though he took multiple other wives and had hundreds of concubines over his lifetime. Loyalty then was very different from modern Western monogamous ideals: it was rooted in deep respect, political partnership, emotional bond, and unique elevated status, rather than exclusive sexual fidelity.

Genghis Khan united and consolidated nomadic tribes into a unified Mongolia and then extended his Mongol Empire across Asia and the Adriatic Sea in a brutal and devastating manner. His armies killed about 1.25 million people over two years!

Going in another dimension, Genetic researches say that the genetic material from a single male, around 900 years ago, was shared by one in 200 of all men alive, some 16 million men scattered across Eurasia. And that super-successful progenitor was most likely Genghis Khan. The great invader took women from his vanquished foes wherever he went, never mind his legitimate children and those of his concubines. Genghis Khan died in his early sixties-with eyes set on new victories in China.

His successors spread the Mongol Empire to its farthest extent, taking all of China and Korea and in the West, defeating the Poles and Hungarians, whose army included French, and German too.

While Temujin was still hunting to become Genghis Khan, in India, a young Prince, Prithviraj Chauhan / Rai Pithora, had just begun his rule as a Rajput King with his capital at Ajmer, in present-day Rajasthan. He ascended the throne as a minor in 1177 CE again under a mother’s watch, after his father’s death. Despite his young age, he quickly took control and proved himself a capable ruler and military leader. He expanded his kingdom through campaigns against neighbouring powers and ruled over a territory that included Delhi as a secondary holding, but with his main capital and base at Ajmer. He is called the last Hindu King of Delhi, as his passing paved the way for the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate under Qutb-ud-din Aibak-the first Sultan of Delhi, in the year 1206 CE.

One of the most enduring tales of Prithviraj is, his romance with Samyukta/Sanyogita, the daughter of King Jayachandra, the Gahadavala ruler of Kannauj, in present day Uttar Pradesh. While for Genghis Khan, Borte was a turning point for the better, for Prithviraj, Sanyogita was actually a downfall.

Popular legend says that the two fell in love after seeing each other’s portraits painted by an artist who travelled between the Court Kingdoms. Sanyogita admired Prithviraj’s heroic deeds; and he was captivated by her bewitching beauty. When King Jayachandra organized a Swayamvara – a ceremony where a Princess chooses her husband– and deliberately excluded Prithviraj due to their political rivalry, Sanyogita defied her father. She placed a statue of Prithviraj at the entrance and garlanded it instead. Prithviraj, who had arrived in disguise with his forces, eloped with her on horseback. This act intensified the feud between the Kings contributing to disunity among Rajput kingdoms at a critical time when invaders were knocking at India’s then boundaries. It’s unclear whether this story is fact or fiction, but remains a cherished symbol of love and defiance in Indian folklore.

During Prithviraj’s rule, Muhammad Ghori, a ruler from Afghanistan sought to expand into India, and attacked. Prithviraj led a united Rajput confederacy and decisively defeated the invader. Ghori was injured and forced to flee; the Rajputs pursued, but did not capture him (a huge mistake, in hindsight). This victory gave Prithviraj the badge of a defender against foreign incursions. However, Ghori returned with a larger, better-prepared army, employing superior tactics like feigned retreats and coordinated archery. Prithviraj again rallied allies, but this time could not muster a great alliance, especially that of his father-in-law, King Jayachandra’s. Prithviraj did not ask, nor did King Jayachandra offer his army. If they had indeed, India’s history would have been different. This time the Rajput forces were routed and Prithviraj was captured. Ghori’s victory marked a breaking-point, paving the way for the establishment of Muslim rule in northern India and the eventual rise of the Delhi Sultanate.

Prithviraj was taken to Ajmer, where he was executed in early 1192 CE, at about the age of 25. There is also a story, probably fictional, that Prithviraj was blinded by Ghori as punishment. Chained and humiliated, he demonstrated his mastery of shabd-bhedi baan (shooting arrows by sound alone). With guidance from a Poet, Chand Bardai (who recited verses hinting at Ghori’s position), the blinded king shot and killed Ghori. In reality, Ghori survived until 1206 CE, assassinated later by his own men. Meanwhile, Sanyogita committed Sati (burning in the funeral pyre) as was the custom those days to prevent Queens from becoming sex slaves of the Invaders. Ghori was furious with King Jayachandra, who actually helped him in the second invasion. “Whatever the differences, if this King did not go to the aid of his own son-in-law he should be treated as a Traitor”. And promptly had him beheaded. Indian Kings lacked this killer instinct and using the excuse of ‘war dharma’ and ‘large-heartedness’ they let off their enemies easily.

If you go back into the history of India, despite having fantastic warriors, fighters, heroes, and a great civilization, India was repeatedly invaded only because it failed to stay united and collaborate against an invader. Often, after momentarily joining together to repulse an attack, the Kings would go back to their old ways of infighting.

While Genghis Khan and Prithviraj were using Mom and Wife to build Empires, in faraway Africa, a King, living at the edge of the Sahara Desert, easily inherited power and wealth so much, that he created a never before sensation with this fabulous abundance. Mansa Musa was the ninth Mansa (Emperor or King) of the Mali Empire in West Africa. He ruled from around 1312 to 1337 CE and is said to be one of the wealthiest in history, thanks to Mali’s control over vast gold and salt-trade networks.

Mansa Musa belonged to the Keita dynasty, which roots can be traced to Sundiata Keita, the legendary founder of the Mali Empire in the 13th century. He occupied the throne after the previous ruler disappeared during a large naval expedition to explore the Atlantic Ocean. Musa inherited an already prosperous empire that controlled key trans-Saharan trade routes, rich gold mines, salt deposits, and ivory.

Under his reign, the Mali Empire reached its territorial and economic peak. It stretched across much of West Africa, encompassing parts of modern-day Mali, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Burkina Faso, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, and Mauritania. Musa expanded the empire by conquering or absorbing territories, including the important trading city of Gao, and secured control over northern Saharan outposts like Walata and salt-producing regions like Taghaza.

Mansa Musa’s most memorable and legendary act was his Hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca in 1324 CE, undertaken as a devout Muslim in the 17th year of his reign. This journey put Mali on the global map and showcased its unimaginable wealth and riches. Musa travelled with an enormous caravan of about 60,000 people, including 12,000 servants or slaves, many dressed in fine brocade and silk, 500 attendants each carrying a gold staff, and 80–100 camels loaded with hundreds of kilos of gold bars each (possibly totalling up to 18 tons). His senior wife and her entourage added to the splendour. The procession started at Niana-Mali’s then Capital- through Walata, Tagaza, Ain-salah, Ghadames, Aujila, traversing across the Sahara to reach Cairo, Egypt, and then onwards to Medina and finally Mecca -a total of about 6400km. In Cairo, his lavish spending and gifts of gold were so extravagant that they flooded the market, causing the price of gold to drop significantly (by up to 25%) and disrupting the local economy for about a decade afterwards. He built a new mosque every Friday, along the route. The entire journey took nearly two years during which period Musa’s son ruled Mali. He returned to his kingdom through the same route.

Upon his return, Mansa Musa focused on turning Mali into a centre of Islamic learning and culture. He brought scholars, architects, and jurists from Egypt and Spain. He commissioning the construction and rebuilding of grand mosques, most famously the Djinguereber Mosque in Timbuktu. And developed Timbuktu and Gao into major intellectual hubs with universities, libraries, and madrasas that attracted students and scholars from across the Muslim world. He promoting Islamic scholarship and encouraging the study of the Quran and law. Timbuktu became one of Africa’s most renowned centres of learning during the medieval period. His reign is called the Golden Age of the Mali Empire.

Mansa Musa died around 1337 CE. While the empire remained strong for a time, it gradually declined due to succession disputes, weaker leadership, over-reliance on gold trade, and the rise of rival powers, which eventually conquered much of Mali’s territory. By the late 15th–16th centuries, the once-mighty empire had broken significantly.

Mansa Musa’s story shows off the sophistication, wealth, and cultural achievements of medieval West African empires, often overlooked in traditional world history narratives. His Hajj remains one of the most spectacular displays of royal power and piety in recorded history.

Coming back to The Roman Empire, officially called the Western Roman Empire, it collapsed in 476 CE, but there was a spin-off. The Eastern Roman Empire continued, staying alive as The Byzantine Empire. It began in 330 CE when Roman Emperor, Constantine the Great re-founded the ancient Greek city of Byzantium as Constantinople (modern day Istanbul) and made it the new capital of the Roman Empire. This shifted the empire’s political and economic centre eastward.

Under emperors like Justinian I (527–565 CE), the empire reached a peak: reconquering parts of the North Africa, and Italy, codifying Roman law (Corpus Juris Civilis), and building the magnificent Hagia Sophia- a Christian Basilica, which remained the world’s largest Church for more than 500 years. The Byzantine Empire lasted for over 1,000 years but faced continuous threats, losing vast territories to Arab Muslim conquests (Syria, Egypt, North Africa) and later to Seljuk Turks, which opened Anatolia to Turkish settlement. Frequent civil wars, economic strain, religious controversies, and reliance on mercenaries weakened the state. The Crusades era particularly, the Fourth Crusade (1204) was catastrophic. The Empire began breaking-up and after 1261 CE, it became a shadow of its former self- reduced to a small territory around the capital Constantinople.

The Crusader Era was a period of religious and military campaigns primarily launched by Latin Catholics against Muslim-controlled territories in the Holy Land (modern-day Israel, Palestine, and surrounding regions), as well as other areas. Ottoman Turks steadily conquered remaining lands. The empire’s end came in May 1453, when Sultan Mehmed II captured Constantinople after a famous siege. The Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque.

The fall of Constantinople is traditionally seen as the end of the Middle Ages and the last remnant of the ancient Roman world. The Byzantines preserved classical Greek and Roman knowledge, developed Orthodox Christianity, influenced Slavic cultures (especially Russia), and acted as a buffer between Europe and Islamic powers for centuries.

Meanwhile, thanks to the opening provided by the Byzantine Empire, in northwestern Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) a Turkish Muslim nomad warrior, tired of the nomadic life, wanted a permanent homeland and a more settled life for his people. Ertugrul Gazi a leader of the Kayı tribe of Oghuz Turks was fired-up to achieve this, diving deep into his Muslim faith for guidance. Surrounded by the Mongols to the east and the Crusaders and Byzantines to the west; like other Turkish tribes, Ertrugrul’s tribe too was pushed west by the Mongols. He fought valiantly to settle his followers in the frontier town of Sogut, under the declining Seljuk Sultanate of Rum. And also as a ghazi (raider) against Byzantine forces, establishing a small Beylik (principality), about 1299 to 1326, that served as the foundation for his son Osman, who is traditionally regarded as the founder of the Ottoman dynasty, around 1299 CE.

An immensely popular Turkish TV Serial, Dirilis: Ertugrul (Resurrection: Ertugrul), a Turkish historical drama television series inspired by the life of Ertugrul, the father of Osman I, founder of the Ottoman Empire, tells us the early Ottoman story.

Under Osman and his early successors (Orhan, Murad I, and Bayezid I), the Ottomans expanded rapidly through raids, alliances, and conquests. They crossed into Europe in the 1350s, captured key Balkan territories, and built a centralized state with a professional army. By the early 15th century, they controlled much of Anatolia and the Balkans. A pivotal moment came in 1453, when the 21-year-old Sultan Mehmed II (the Conqueror) the Ottoman Turks besieged and captured Constantinople after a 53-day siege. This ended the Byzantine Empire, and Mehmed made Constantinople-renamed as Istanbul- his capital, transforming the Ottoman Empire into a major imperial power bridging Europe and Asia.

The story of the siege and capture of the until-then-impregnable Constantinople in 1453, is legendary for its engineering ingenuity and audacity. Mehmed II faced a major obstacle: a massive iron chain stretched across the entrance to the Golden Horn, blocking his fleet from entering the city’s sheltered harbour and cutting off supply lines. To bypass it, Mehmed ordered the construction of a greased wooden log road over the hilly land of Galata-north of the Golden Horn. On the night before the assault his forces dragged roughly 60–70 lighter warships overland rolling them on the logs with the help of oxen and hundreds of men. The ships were then relaunched into the Golden Horn behind the chain. This outrageous manoeuvre surprised the defenders, allowed the Ottomans to attack the city from the north, disrupted Venetian aid, and greatly enabled the Ottomans to capture Constantinople.

Mehmed II also used a revolutionary artillery force during the siege, marking one of the first major uses of large-scale gunpowder cannons in siege warfare. The most famous was the Basilic, also called Orban’s Cannon- about 8.2 metres long and weighting 19 tons- a gigantic bronze bombard cast by the Hungarian engineer Orban. Mehmed funded it after Orban’s offer was rejected by the Byzantines due to the high cost. The city’s formidable Theodosian Walls (built during the reign of Emperor Theodosius in the 5th Century)-a triple-layered system of moats, outer walls, inner walls, and towers-had repelled invaders for over a millennium. However, Mehmed’s forces breached them through a combination of revolutionary artillery, sustained bombardment, engineering efforts, and a final coordinated assault.

The Ottoman Empire reached its zenith in the 16th century under Suleyman the Magnificent, about 1520 to 1566 CE, who expanded it to encompass the Balkans, Hungary, the Middle East (Syria, Iraq, Arabia, and Egypt), North Africa, and parts of the Caucasus. Sultans claimed the title of Caliph, positioning the Ottomans as protectors of Sunni Islam. It was a multicultural, multi-ethnic state with advanced administration, law, and culture.

Decline set in gradually after the late 16th–17th centuries due to costly wars, inflation, corruption, military stagnation, and failure to keep pace with European technological and economic advances. The 18th–19th centuries saw further retreats, nationalist revolts in the Balkans and internal reform attempts and the Young Turk Revolution (1908), which modernized, but could not fully reverse weakening. By the early 20th century, the Empire-called the ‘Sick Man of Europe’-had lost most European and African territories. It entered World War I (1914–1918) on the side of the Central Powers, allying with Germany. Defeat led to occupation of parts of Anatolia, and the partitioning of remaining Arab provinces. The Sultanate was abolished in 1922, and the Republic of Turkey was proclaimed in 1923 under Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, marking the Empire’s formal end, after over 600 years.

The Ottomans rose from a small frontier beylik under Ertugrul and Osman, became a world power with the conquest of Constantinople, peaked as a vast Islamic empire, and slowly declined due to internal issues and external pressures before collapsing in the aftermath of World War I.

Riding back to India, the Vijayanagar Empire, a major Hindu kingdom in southern India flourished from 1336 to 1646, serving as a bulwark against northern invasions and becoming a centre of economic prosperity, art, and architecture. Its capital at Hampi is now a UNESCO site.

Brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, of the Sangama dynasty, founded the Vijayanagar Empire in 1336 on the banks of the Tungabhadra River. They had served under the Kakatiya and Hoysala kingdoms before declaring independence amid the decline of the Delhi Sultanate’s influence in the Deccan. The empire emerged to resist Muslim incursions from the north and consolidate Hindu power in the south. It gradually expanded by absorbing territories of other dynasties and controlling regions from the Krishna River in the north to the southern tip of peninsula India. The empire reached its zenith under Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529). His reign brought military victories against the Deccan Sultanates, the Gajapati kingdom of Odisha, and others, extending influence across much of southern India. This era saw booming overseas trade, growth of agricultural wealth, monumental temple construction, literature, and cultural patronage, making Vijayanagara one of India’s most powerful and prosperous kingdoms.

After Krishnadevaraya, his successors failed to keep the momentum, and ultimately succumbed to a combined Deccan forces onslaught of rival Muslim kingdoms of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda, and Bidar. The victors then sacked and razed the magnificent capital of Hampi over several months, looting its wealth and destroying temples and palaces. Thereafter, the Empire never fully recovered. Though it lingered until around 1646 CE. It suffered from internal rebellions by Nayaka (Governor) chieftains, loss of territory, decentralization, and further conflicts.

By the early 17th century, successor states like the Nayakas of Madurai and Tanjore, and the rising Mysore kingdom, filled the power vacuum in the south. In short, the empire rose as a defender of southern Hindu polity and peaked through strong leadership and commerce, but fell due to a catastrophic military defeat enabled by overreach and unified opposition, followed by irreversible fragmentation.

To conclude this essay, over to China’s Ming Dynasty, and then Columbus.

The Ming Dynasty was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang, in the mid-14th century. Born into a poor peasant family in Anhui Province during the declining Mongol-ruled Yuan Dynasty he faced famine, epidemics, and the death of most of his family by age 16. He worked as a cowherd, became a novice monk at a Buddhist monastery, and survived by begging as a wandering mendicant.

In 1352 CE, after Yuan forces burned his monastery suspecting rebel ties, Zhu joined the Red Turban Rebellion-a widespread anti-Yuan uprising. Despite starting as a low-ranking soldier and being physically unremarkable, he demonstrated exceptional military skill, leadership, intelligence, and decisiveness. He quickly rose through the ranks, gained command of his own forces, attracted loyal followers-many of whom became Ming Generals-and married the adopted daughter of a key rebel leader.

By his late 20s, Zhu emerged as a major warlord. He captured key cities like Nanjing in 1356, which became his base. He built a disciplined army, implemented land reforms and administration in controlled territories, and outmanoeuvred rival rebel factions. After capturing key territories and defeating the Mongols, he proclaimed himself Emperor in 1368, and later came to be known as the Hongwu Emperor. He established his capital at Nanjing. The dynasty lasted until 1644 and ended amid a combination of internal and external pressures in its later decades The Ming era is remembered for cultural achievements like porcelain, literature, and naval expeditions.

Zhu Yuanzhang’s extraordinary ascent-from illiterate orphan and beggar to emperor-exemplified the chaos of the late Yuan era in China, and his own ruthless ambition, strategic brilliance, and ability to rally support.

After ruling for about 30 years Zhu died in 1398. Meanwhile, is another part of the world one of the most famous explorers of our time was navigating the high seas and gave the opening for discovering a New World on 12 October 1492. Christopher Columbus-an Italian Adventurer sponsored by Spain’s Royals, Isabella and Ferdinand- and his crew on the ships, Santa Maria, Pinta, and Nina, made landfall in the Bahamas Islands at a place called Guanahani, which Columbus renamed San Salvador. He believed he had reached the East Indies (Asia), so he called the native people ‘Indians’-a term that stuck for centuries. And then to sailed to what is now Cuba, again thinking it was India. Columbus made four voyages to the Caribbean and South/Central America between 1492 and 1504, but he never set foot on the North American mainland -not even Florida, which was discovered by others.

No single person ‘discovered’ the American continents, which had been home to Indigenous peoples for at least 15,000–20,000 years, with ancestors migrating from Asia via the Bering land bridge, and possibly other routes.

The date 12 October 1492 is celebrated in many countries as Columbus Day, or Indigenous Peoples Day, in some places.

This is the end of a series of Essays beginning from Singularity, to Columbus’s discovery of (the way to) America. There are so many hard lessons we can learn from history.