About: This is the third in a concise series of essays from the beginnings of our world, the Milky Way Galaxy in the Universe, and in it our Planet Earth. I started from Singularity banged into the Big Bang, gave life to the formation of life and the evolution of living beings, and breathed-in and out- to the arrival of the human species, among other flora and fauna-Dinosaurs included. Then I climbed the rise of ancient human civilisations, of religion, and the kind.

In this essay I battle it out from the early Roman Empire taking you to the threshold of Genghis Khan’s Mongol Empire-the largest contiguous empire in our history.

We left off at the foundation of the early Roman Empire in 625 BCE and arrived at the gates of the Imperial Roman Empire. So often, in the Empires of the world, there is an ‘early one’ and then a greater ‘Imperial one’.If you want to go back to the early stories you can do so at the following link.

https://kumargovindan.com/2026/03/07/the-dawn-ascent-of-civilizations/

Alexander the Great died in 323 BCE. He came up to the River Indus on India’s western boundary, defeated a mighty Indian King called Porus, termed the ‘religious way of life’ practiced by people on the other side of the Indus as ‘Hindu’, and left. Impressed by King Porus’s exceptional warrior skills, amazing courage, and nobility, Alexander made him an Ally and returned to him, his kingdom. Shortly after, his army, tired to the bone, by years of relentless war, refused to move farther into India’s Gangetic Plains and withdrew from northwestern India, creating a power vacuum in the region.

In many ways Alexander cleared the path for the Roman Empire, and many Kingdoms that followed. And also the immense history that branched from him.

About the time, 551 to 479 BCE, Confucius, a Chinese philosopher, teacher, and political thinker, considered the paragon of Chinese Sages, was beginning to impact life in China. He outlined the ethical and social philosophy that became the foundational ‘civil religion’ for Chinese society and that would shape Chinese life and culture for the next 2,000 years. Confucius believed that society functions best when everyone fulfils their roles with virtue, creating harmony between individuals, families, government, and even Heaven. Chaos arises when people neglect moral duties or act selfishly. Confucianism is not an organised religion, but its principles are deeply interwoven with Buddhism, Taoism, and Chinese folk religions. Confucius’s teachings rarely relied on reasoned argument, and ethical ideals were conveyed through allusion, innuendo, and even tautology.

The vacuum in northwestern India, left by the exit of Alexander was quickly filled by an ambitious Chandragupta Maurya, who born in a warrior clan of humble origins, and guided by a brilliant strategist, Chanakya, rose rapidly. He overthrew the hugely unpopular and brutal Nanda dynasty in Magadha (present day Bihar) and established the Mauryan Dynasty and Empire. He then went on to defeat the last remaining Greek General, Seleucus, married his daughter, and secured the western border, while rapidly expanding and transforming fragmented post-Alexander northern India into India’s first major unified Empire.

Chandragupta was influenced by Jainism and in later years abdicated his throne and became an ascetic. He died by fasting unto death at Sharavanabelagola (present day Karnataka), dejected by the tragic conditions prevailing during a 12 year famine in his Kingdom. His son Bindusara expanded deep into India’s Deccan region. And Bindusara’s son, Ashoka, who later became Ashoka the Great, consolidated and expanded East into Kalinga (India’s modern-day Odisha). Now, a quick leap of faith to Jainism.

Jainism has no single historical founder, and is viewed as beginning-less and endless: an eternal dharma/truth, reality that is periodically rediscovered and taught by a succession of enlightened beings called Tirthankaras (teaching Gods)- 24 of them. The first was Rishabhanatha, traditionally credited with establishing civilized society and the core principles of Jainism, in the remote past. The 24th and last was Mahavira, 599–527 BCE, a contemporary of Buddha. Mahavira systematised earlier doctrines, added emphasis on a fifth vow of Brahmacharya (celibacy), in addition to, Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfullness), Asteya (not-stealing), and Aparigraha (no possessions), organized the monastic community more clearly, and spread the teachings widely-making him the figure most people in the modern world associate with Jainism. Jains plainly regard him as a reformer and propagator. All Tirthankaras teach the same eternal truth; none invented the religion. Jainism does not believe in a creator God; and that the Universe functions on its own eternal laws. God is a realised human who has become a perfected soul.

Returning to the Mauryan Kingdom, Ashoka the Great, ruled from 268 to 232 BCE, and made the remarkable transformation from a conqueror to a promoter of peace and moral governance. After the bloody conquest of Kalinga, Ashoka is said to have experienced deep remorse and ‘converted to Buddhism’. However, Ashoka was already a follower of Buddhism before the Kalinga War, but the war marked a major turning point in deepening his commitment to Buddhist principles.

Ashoka renounced offensive warfare and introduced his policy of dharma—a code of moral conduct emphasising non-violence, tolerance, compassion, truthfulness, respect for all life. He built rock and pillar edicts across the Empire to promote his policies. He pioneered stone architecture in India with iconic pillars, like the Lion Capital of Sarnath-now India’s National Emblem- and other notable monuments that survive to this day. The four lions of India’s National Emblem face the four cardinal directions, symbolising power, courage, and the spread of Dharma.

Meanwhile, in Southern India, it was the beginning of the Sangam (assemblies of Tamil poets and scholars patronised by kings) Era, which started about 300 BCE (and went on up to 300 AD – total of 600 years). This is called the Golden age of Southern India marked by a flourishing Tamil culture, vibrant maritimer trade with the Rome and China, among others, and the rule of three dynasty Kingdoms: Cheras-Westen Coast/Kerala, Cholas-River Kaveri Delta, and Pandyas-Madurai, Southern India. The era is defined by Sangam literature, classified as Melkannaku (narrative) and Kilkanakku (didactic) works. Tolkappiyam, one for the 5 great Tamil Epics was written during this time. It also established the first rules of Tamil grammar and provided insights into the then social and political conditions.

Returning to the Roman Republic, it is about 50 BCE, and the mighty General and Statesman, Julius Caesar, hailing from a patrician family, rose through a combination of brilliant military success’s, political manoeuvring, and alliances to greatly expand Roman territory, gaining immense wealth, and building a loyal veteran army. The famous line, Veni, Vidi, Vinci – I came, I saw, I conquered– attributed to Julius Caesar, dramatically announces his arrival on the scene. Caesar was appointed and named dictator for life giving, him supreme, indefinite power by the Senate.

The Senate was created by Romulus, the first King of Rome, to advise the King on affairs of the Kingdom. The first 100 men appointed senators by Romulus are referred to as ‘fathers’ and the descendants of these men became the patrician class. Over time the Senate became the highest assembly of Ancient Rome constituting its aristocracy, and stayed that way up to the end of the Roman Empire.

Caesar had named his grandnephew and adopted son, Octavius, as his heir. Octavius defeated all of Caesar’s assassins-mainly Brutus and Mark Anthony (and, of course, the Egyptian Queen, Cleopatra) and consolidated power. The Senate granted him the honorific title Augustus (the revered one), which is the start of his rule as Rome’s first Emperor. The period of the Roman Empire from 27 BCE, marked the start of the Principate and the Pax Romana, through roughly the 6th century CE and encompasses a fascinating era of large-scale empires and civilizations across Eurasia.

On his part, Caesar introduced the Julian calendar, expanded citizenship, restructured provinces, initiated public works, and centralized authority-changes that laid the groundwork for imperial governance.The Julian Calendar is a solar-based calendar with a 365-day year, adding a leap day every four years. It was a major reform of the old Roman system, setting 12 months with a 365.25-day average year. It was largely replaced by the Gregorian Calendar in the year 1582, due to a minor drift in the number of days.

Fearing that Julius Caesar would plant himself as a Monarch and destroy established Roman traditions, a group of Senators colluded to assassinate him in the Senate House, on the Ides of March -15 March 44BCE. He was stabbed 22 times and is said to have uttered the iconic, “Et tu, Brute?” (“You too, Brutus?”) upon seeing his close friend Brutus among the conspirators-though this is likely from Shakespeare’s play rather than historical fact. The conspirators claimed they were defending the Republic, but the assassination plunged Rome into chaos.

The history of Roman is incomplete without the story of The Catilinarian Conspiracy in 63 BCE, which happened under the Consuls, Marcus Tullius Cicero and Gaius Antonius Hybrida. During this time Julius Caesar was just beginning to rise through the ranks.

Lucius Sergius Catilina-Catiline-a Roman patrician politician and soldier was the central figure in one of the most dramatic failed coups of the Roman Republic. Catiline is also singled out as ‘one of the most interesting possibilities in the history of the world’ viewed not just as a failed traitor but as a charismatic, high-stakes gambler who embodied the raw potential of a different path for Rome-and, by extension, for Western civilization. Catiline fascinates because he stood at the crossroads of the Republic’s death throes. He was a talented, ambitious aristocrat who chose open rebellion against the system that denied him the status he believed was his birthright. His failure helped preserve the Republic for a few more decades-but it also highlighted the fractures that would soon destroy it. That tension between personal ambition, social unrest, and constitutional breakdown makes him not merely a footnote in Roman history, but one of its most tantalizing ‘roads not taken’. In the end, Catiline was killed in war, trying to overthrow the Republic.

Now, to the Common Era-CE-(or AD-Anno Domini, in the year of the Lord, Jesus). Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, was born around 6 to 4 BCE in Bethlehem, and raised in Nazareth, Galilee. He was a Jewish teacher and a religious leader considered to be the Son of God, who taught a message of love, forgiveness, repentance, and the coming of the Kingdom of God, performing miracles and gathering disciples in Roman-occupied Judea. Jesus was crucified in CE 30 or 33 in Jerusalem under the Roman Empire’s Governor of Judea, Pontius Pilate. Jesus is said to have risen from the dead, forming the foundation of Christianity as the Son of God and Saviour.

The Romans themselves practiced a polytheistic religion simply called ‘Roman Religion’, worshipping many Gods and Goddesses heavily influenced by Greek mythology.

Jesus taught in a direct, often parabolic style- using stories, metaphors, analogies, focusing on the heart, love, and the Kingdom of God rather than complex rules. Some of the best are: Love your neighbour as yourself; do to others as you would have them do to you; forgive others just as God forgives you, be merciful, as your heavenly Father is merciful, judge not, and you will not be judged; the greatest in the Kingdom is the servant of all, be humble like a child; the World belongs to the poor in spirit, the meek, the merciful, and those who hunger for righteousness; have childlike faith and trust in God as a loving Father; do not worry about tomorrow.

Jesus often used parables about lost sheep, prodigal sons, good Samaritans, and hidden treasures to show that God’s love is for everyone-especially the outsiders, sinners, and marginalized — and that true life springs from a personal relationship with God rather than religious performance.

While Jesus was spreading his message of love, we return to the Sangam period of South India. In about the 1st century CE, a Chola King, Karikala Chola won a famous battle defeating a confederacy of the Cheras, Pandyas, and other chiefs, marking the rise of the Early Chola Empire (Another Chola Empire called the Imperial Cholas would rise in 848 CE). He is the greatest early Chola King. He built the engineering marvel, the Kallanai (Grand Anicut) Dam, an ancient dam across the Kaveri River near Tiruchirappalli. This structure, still functional after 2,000 years, regulated floods, prevented droughts, and boosted agriculture in the delta-one of the world’s oldest functional water-regulating structures. The dam is constructed from rough stones, cleverly placed to withstand the river’s flow without the use of binding modern-day cement. The design was a simple, yet ingenious check dam that runs parallel to the riverbank, diverting water rather than storing massive amounts like modern reservoirs.

Karikala Chola enhanced trade, irrigation networks, and prosperity. Poems like Pattinappalai glorify his rule, his port city, and his generosity to poets. The early capitals were Uraiyur or Tiruchirapalli and Kaveripattinam.

About this period, also in the 1st century CE, Kaundinya, a legendary Indian mariner, regarded as one of the earliest Indian sailors, undertook a long-distance sea voyage across the Indian Ocean to Southeast Asia, sailing from present day Odisha.

Kaundinya was probably a merchant seeking opportunities in the lucrative maritime networks of the time. He cleverly used the monsoon winds to cross the Bay of Bengal, carrying goods like textiles and jewellery. Upon reaching the Mekong Delta,Vietnam, he was attacked by pirates and local forces led by a formidable warrior princess, Soma, a member of the indigenous Naga clan. Kaundinya fought back successfully and fended off the attackers. But his ship was breached and had to be grounded for repairs. Rather than escalating into prolonged conflict, the encounter turned into one of mutual respect and admiration. Soma, impressed by Kaundinya’s prowess and wisdom, proposed marriage. He accepted, and their union symbolized a cultural and political alliance. Kaundinya became her consort, and together they co-founded the ancient Kingdom of Funan, with its early capital at Vyadhapura (in present day Cambodia). The dynasty drew inspiration from Indian models of governance, law, and brahmanical traditions, marking the beginning of significant Indian cultural influence in the region-through trade, Hinduism, and administrative practices-while blending with local customs. Kaundinya was the first Indian mariner to have made such a impactful transoceanic journey and left a lasting historical footprint. Funan became a prosperous trading hub, facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and religions between India, China, and beyond.

Recently, Kaundinya’s legacy was revived in India through the INSV Kaundinya, a modern Indian Navy sailing vessel built using ancient ‘stitched-plank’ techniques (inspired by Ajanta cave paintings) and inducted in 2025. It honoured Kaundinya as a symbol of India’s forgotten seafaring heritage, with a voyage retracing ancient Indian Ocean routes. It highlighted him as a pivotal figure who demonstrated India’s early maritime capabilities at a time when long sea voyages were rare and often viewed with caution.

While Kaundinya was settling down into a happy married life, the Roman Empire was under decline, on its last wobbly legs. And in India, about 380 CE, a new Empire was rising, with the establishment of the Gupta Dynasty under Chandragupta II. The Gupta Era is known as a the ‘Golden Age’ of ancient India for advancements in mathematics, astronomy, literature, and art.

Chandragupta II, also known as Chandragupta Vikramaditya, 375–415 CE, was the greatest emperor of the Gupta Empire. He was the son of Samudragupta, who vastly expanded the Gupta Kingdom founded by his father Chandragupta I. Samudragupta is often called the ‘Napoleon of India’ -due his military strategies-and remained undefeated in battle, until the end of his reign. Chandragupta Vikramaditya built upon his father’s successful military campaigns and expanded the empire significantly defeating the Western Kshatrapas (Shakas) in Gujarat and Malwa, which brought vast wealth and access to western trade routes. His reign marked the peak of Gupta prosperity, with flourishing art, literature, science, and culture.

Kalidasa, who was a poet in the Gupta Court wrote the epic Sakuntala. He is often regarded as the greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist of classical India- also called the ‘Shakespeare of India’. The play tells the romantic story of King Dushyanta and Sakuntala and explores themes of love, separation, and reunion. Their son, Bharata, becomes the legendary ancestor of the Bharata dynasty (after whom India is named). Mathematician Aryabhata lived in the period. Zero was invented. The ancient Gupta text Kamasutra by the Indian scholar Vatsyayana is widely considered to be the standard work on human sexual behaviour in Sanskrit literature. Nalanda University was established. Chess was developed during this time. The outstanding paintings in the Ajanta and Ellora caves came into being, and it was a period of revival of Hinduism and tolerance of Jainism and Buddhism.

The Roman Empire collapsed in 476 CE. And about a century later, a new religion came into being, ‘invented’ by Mahomet, in the manner an adventurer, say Columbus, discovered a new continent, say America. Mahomet, later becoming Prophet Muhammad, laid the foundation of Islam in 610 CE. He took off from the Kaaba- the cubic building, often called the ‘Cubic Temple’- in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, which today remains the central shrine of Islam. It houses a reddish-Black Stone, semi-circular, six inches high, eight broad (said to have fallen from a meteor, from the sky) Hobal, a prominent pre-Islamic Arabian deity, among roughly 360 pagan images housed in or around the Kaaba, before Islam. It included another Idol, Al-Lat, or Al-Lah or was probably another name for Hobal. A few feet from the Cube was the well, Zem-Zem, rediscovered by Mohamet’s grandfather. This well with its brackish and luke-warm water is said to have been first discovered by Hagar, Abraham’s maid servant who gave birth to his son Ishmael (Ismail) and had to flee the wrath of his wife Sarah.

According to the Bible, Abraham (known as Ibrahim in Islam) is widely regraded as foundational patriarch of both Judaism (Jews) and Islam, as well as a key figure in Christianity. He is the central ancestral and spiritual figure linking the three major Abrahamic religions. Abraham’s descendants through Isaac and Jacob inherited the land of Canaan(modern-day Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan). Jews traditionally trace their lineage and national identity directly to Abraham as the founder of the Jewish people. He is often called ‘Avraham Avinu’ (Abraham our father) in Jewish tradition. Muslims trace the Arab people and, by extension, the Prophet Muhammad’s lineage through Abraham’s firstborn son Ismail. Islamic tradition holds that Abraham and Ismail rebuilt or founded the Kaaba in Mecca as a house of worship.

When Prophet Muhammad-after establishing Islam- along with his followers, conquered Mecca in 630 CE, he ordered the removal and destruction of all idols and images from the Kaaba, rededicating the structure to the worship of the one God (Allah) alone. No pre-Islamic idols, including Hobal, remain inside or associated with the Kaaba today. The site is under Saudi Arabian management and continues to host millions of pilgrims annually. The Kaaba has been rebuilt and renovated many times over history (due to floods, wars, etc.), but its core role and the Black Stone’s placement remain unchanged in Islamic practice.

Prophet Muhammad’s companions wrote and compiled the Koran-consisting of about 114 Suras (Chapters) based on oral revelations to him by Allah, through the Angel Gabriel. When Mohamet was 25 years old he accepted a marriage proposal from a rich widow, Khadija, 40 years old, who helped him with the revelations. Previously he had worked for her as a driver in a caravan expedition. These revelations occurred over about 23 years. Muhammad, who was illiterate, recited the revelations to his companions, who memorized and wrote them down on materials like palm leaves, bones, and parchment. After Muhammad’s death in 632 CE, the revelations were compiled into a single book- the Koran-under the first Islamic Caliph, Abu Bakr.

Prophet Muhammad first launched Islam in Mecca, where he faced stubborn resistance and persecution and had to migrate to Medina (the Hijra). Later he returned to conquer Mecca. The original intent was to get back business to his home town as the rich caravan cities had fallen into abandonment and ruin. The people at that time lived off the transcontinental road traffic: lodging, feeding and robbing travellers. But then, the change Muhammad imposed upon the world through Islam outstrips that of many Adventurers, Explorers, Kings, Emperors in history, and shows the difference a single man can make. And one of the biggest Empires to rise with Islam at the core was the Ottoman Empire.

Returning to India, the Cholas under Vijayalaya Chola, a descendant of Karikala Chola- of the Early Cholas- rose again from obscurity to run a memorable second innings of the Chola Dynasty. He exploited the intense rivalry and frequent wars between the Pallavas and Pandyas, which weakened both major powers, creating a power vacuum in the fertile Kaveri delta region. Vijayalaya quickly filled it, when around 848–850 CE with a well-organized military force he captured Thanjavur and then there was no looking back. His son Aditya Chola I, who succeeded him expanded further laying the foundation of the Imperial Chola Empire. After Aditya’s death, his son Parantaka took over and ruled for about 48 years. He was one of the most powerful early Imperial Cholas. He comprehensively defeated the Pandyas and earned the title ‘Maduraikonda’ (Conqueror of Madurai).

And after a brief period of weak Chola Rulers, emerged Arulmozhivarman who later became Rajaraja Chola I (985–1014 CE)- the real Architect of the Empire and the greatest ruler of the early Imperial phase. He consolidated and vastly expanded the Chola Empire conquering the entire Pandya and Chera kingdoms. He also defeated the Sinhalese King Mahinda V and occupied northern Sri Lanka. He launched successful naval expeditions to the Maldives.

The Cholas were followers of Hinduism, specifically the Shaivite (Shiva-worshipping) tradition. They were great patrons of Shaivism, building magnificent temples dedicated to Lord Shiva. Rajaraja Chola built the iconic Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur-now a UNESCO World Heritage Site and architectural marvel. He took the title Rajaraja (King of Kings).

His son Rajendra Chola I (1014–1044 CE), an equally powerful Chola emperor, continued and even surpassed his father’s achievements. He completed the conquest of Sri Lanka-annexing the entire island; launched a massive naval expedition against the Srivijaya Empire (present-day Indonesia, Malaysia, and Sumatra); defeated several Southeast Asian kingdoms and secured trade routes. He Conquered Kalinga, and parts of Bengal in the north and reached the Ganges River- earning the title ‘Gangaikonda’ (Conqueror of the Ganges). He founded a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram and built the magnificent Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple (another Brihadeeswara style temple) in present day Ariyalur District of Tamil Nadu. His reign marked the peak territorial extent of the Chola Empire: from the Ganges in the north to Sri Lanka in the south, and with influence across the Indian Ocean.

One of the last Cholas, Rajaraja II generally ruled in peace up to CE 1173. In total, the Cholas ruled for about 400 glorious years.

For more angles on the Great Cholas read:

https://kumargovindan.com/2025/08/13/freewheeling-9/

In my next adventure, I take you through Genghis Khan’s Mongol Empire, India’s Prithviraj Chauhan and the rumblings of the invasion of India. And the great Ottoman Empire, ending this series of essays.