Tag: Cholas

THE GROWTH OF CIVILIZATIONS

About: This is the third in a concise series of essays from the beginnings of our world, the Milky Way Galaxy in the Universe, and in it our Planet Earth. I started from Singularity banged into the Big Bang, gave life to the formation of life and the evolution of living beings, and breathed-in and out- to the arrival of the human species, among other flora and fauna-Dinosaurs included. Then I climbed the rise of ancient human civilisations, of religion, and the kind.

In this essay I battle it out from the early Roman Empire taking you to the threshold of Genghis Khan’s Mongol Empire-the largest contiguous empire in our history.

We left off at the foundation of the early Roman Empire in 625 BCE and arrived at the gates of the Imperial Roman Empire. So often, in the Empires of the world, there is an ‘early one’ and then a greater ‘Imperial one’.If you want to go back to the early stories you can do so at the following link.

https://kumargovindan.com/2026/03/07/the-dawn-ascent-of-civilizations/

Alexander the Great died in 323 BCE. He came up to the River Indus on India’s western boundary, defeated a mighty Indian King called Porus, termed the ‘religious way of life’ practiced by people on the other side of the Indus as ‘Hindu’, and left. Impressed by King Porus’s exceptional warrior skills, amazing courage, and nobility, Alexander made him an Ally and returned to him, his kingdom. Shortly after, his army, tired to the bone, by years of relentless war, refused to move farther into India’s Gangetic Plains and withdrew from northwestern India, creating a power vacuum in the region.

In many ways Alexander cleared the path for the Roman Empire, and many Kingdoms that followed. And also the immense history that branched from him.

About the time, 551 to 479 BCE, Confucius, a Chinese philosopher, teacher, and political thinker, considered the paragon of Chinese Sages, was beginning to impact life in China. He outlined the ethical and social philosophy that became the foundational ‘civil religion’ for Chinese society and that would shape Chinese life and culture for the next 2,000 years. Confucius believed that society functions best when everyone fulfils their roles with virtue, creating harmony between individuals, families, government, and even Heaven. Chaos arises when people neglect moral duties or act selfishly. Confucianism is not an organised religion, but its principles are deeply interwoven with Buddhism, Taoism, and Chinese folk religions. Confucius’s teachings rarely relied on reasoned argument, and ethical ideals were conveyed through allusion, innuendo, and even tautology.

The vacuum in northwestern India, left by the exit of Alexander was quickly filled by an ambitious Chandragupta Maurya, who born in a warrior clan of humble origins, and guided by a brilliant strategist, Chanakya, rose rapidly. He overthrew the hugely unpopular and brutal Nanda dynasty in Magadha (present day Bihar) and established the Mauryan Dynasty and Empire. He then went on to defeat the last remaining Greek General, Seleucus, married his daughter, and secured the western border, while rapidly expanding and transforming fragmented post-Alexander northern India into India’s first major unified Empire.

Chandragupta was influenced by Jainism and in later years abdicated his throne and became an ascetic. He died by fasting unto death at Sharavanabelagola (present day Karnataka), dejected by the tragic conditions prevailing during a 12 year famine in his Kingdom. His son Bindusara expanded deep into India’s Deccan region. And Bindusara’s son, Ashoka, who later became Ashoka the Great, consolidated and expanded East into Kalinga (India’s modern-day Odisha). Now, a quick leap of faith to Jainism.

Jainism has no single historical founder, and is viewed as beginning-less and endless: an eternal dharma/truth, reality that is periodically rediscovered and taught by a succession of enlightened beings called Tirthankaras (teaching Gods)- 24 of them. The first was Rishabhanatha, traditionally credited with establishing civilized society and the core principles of Jainism, in the remote past. The 24th and last was Mahavira, 599–527 BCE, a contemporary of Buddha. Mahavira systematised earlier doctrines, added emphasis on a fifth vow of Brahmacharya (celibacy), in addition to, Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfullness), Asteya (not-stealing), and Aparigraha (no possessions), organized the monastic community more clearly, and spread the teachings widely-making him the figure most people in the modern world associate with Jainism. Jains plainly regard him as a reformer and propagator. All Tirthankaras teach the same eternal truth; none invented the religion. Jainism does not believe in a creator God; and that the Universe functions on its own eternal laws. God is a realised human who has become a perfected soul.

Returning to the Mauryan Kingdom, Ashoka the Great, ruled from 268 to 232 BCE, and made the remarkable transformation from a conqueror to a promoter of peace and moral governance. After the bloody conquest of Kalinga, Ashoka is said to have experienced deep remorse and ‘converted to Buddhism’. However, Ashoka was already a follower of Buddhism before the Kalinga War, but the war marked a major turning point in deepening his commitment to Buddhist principles.

Ashoka renounced offensive warfare and introduced his policy of dharma—a code of moral conduct emphasising non-violence, tolerance, compassion, truthfulness, respect for all life. He built rock and pillar edicts across the Empire to promote his policies. He pioneered stone architecture in India with iconic pillars, like the Lion Capital of Sarnath-now India’s National Emblem- and other notable monuments that survive to this day. The four lions of India’s National Emblem face the four cardinal directions, symbolising power, courage, and the spread of Dharma.

Meanwhile, in Southern India, it was the beginning of the Sangam (assemblies of Tamil poets and scholars patronised by kings) Era, which started about 300 BCE (and went on up to 300 AD – total of 600 years). This is called the Golden age of Southern India marked by a flourishing Tamil culture, vibrant maritimer trade with the Rome and China, among others, and the rule of three dynasty Kingdoms: Cheras-Westen Coast/Kerala, Cholas-River Kaveri Delta, and Pandyas-Madurai, Southern India. The era is defined by Sangam literature, classified as Melkannaku (narrative) and Kilkanakku (didactic) works. Tolkappiyam, one for the 5 great Tamil Epics was written during this time. It also established the first rules of Tamil grammar and provided insights into the then social and political conditions.

Returning to the Roman Republic, it is about 50 BCE, and the mighty General and Statesman, Julius Caesar, hailing from a patrician family, rose through a combination of brilliant military success’s, political manoeuvring, and alliances to greatly expand Roman territory, gaining immense wealth, and building a loyal veteran army. The famous line, Veni, Vidi, Vinci – I came, I saw, I conquered– attributed to Julius Caesar, dramatically announces his arrival on the scene. Caesar was appointed and named dictator for life giving, him supreme, indefinite power by the Senate.

The Senate was created by Romulus, the first King of Rome, to advise the King on affairs of the Kingdom. The first 100 men appointed senators by Romulus are referred to as ‘fathers’ and the descendants of these men became the patrician class. Over time the Senate became the highest assembly of Ancient Rome constituting its aristocracy, and stayed that way up to the end of the Roman Empire.

Caesar had named his grandnephew and adopted son, Octavius, as his heir. Octavius defeated all of Caesar’s assassins-mainly Brutus and Mark Anthony (and, of course, the Egyptian Queen, Cleopatra) and consolidated power. The Senate granted him the honorific title Augustus (the revered one), which is the start of his rule as Rome’s first Emperor. The period of the Roman Empire from 27 BCE, marked the start of the Principate and the Pax Romana, through roughly the 6th century CE and encompasses a fascinating era of large-scale empires and civilizations across Eurasia.

On his part, Caesar introduced the Julian calendar, expanded citizenship, restructured provinces, initiated public works, and centralized authority-changes that laid the groundwork for imperial governance.The Julian Calendar is a solar-based calendar with a 365-day year, adding a leap day every four years. It was a major reform of the old Roman system, setting 12 months with a 365.25-day average year. It was largely replaced by the Gregorian Calendar in the year 1582, due to a minor drift in the number of days.

Fearing that Julius Caesar would plant himself as a Monarch and destroy established Roman traditions, a group of Senators colluded to assassinate him in the Senate House, on the Ides of March -15 March 44BCE. He was stabbed 22 times and is said to have uttered the iconic, “Et tu, Brute?” (“You too, Brutus?”) upon seeing his close friend Brutus among the conspirators-though this is likely from Shakespeare’s play rather than historical fact. The conspirators claimed they were defending the Republic, but the assassination plunged Rome into chaos.

The history of Roman is incomplete without the story of The Catilinarian Conspiracy in 63 BCE, which happened under the Consuls, Marcus Tullius Cicero and Gaius Antonius Hybrida. During this time Julius Caesar was just beginning to rise through the ranks.

Lucius Sergius Catilina-Catiline-a Roman patrician politician and soldier was the central figure in one of the most dramatic failed coups of the Roman Republic. Catiline is also singled out as ‘one of the most interesting possibilities in the history of the world’ viewed not just as a failed traitor but as a charismatic, high-stakes gambler who embodied the raw potential of a different path for Rome-and, by extension, for Western civilization. Catiline fascinates because he stood at the crossroads of the Republic’s death throes. He was a talented, ambitious aristocrat who chose open rebellion against the system that denied him the status he believed was his birthright. His failure helped preserve the Republic for a few more decades-but it also highlighted the fractures that would soon destroy it. That tension between personal ambition, social unrest, and constitutional breakdown makes him not merely a footnote in Roman history, but one of its most tantalizing ‘roads not taken’. In the end, Catiline was killed in war, trying to overthrow the Republic.

Now, to the Common Era-CE-(or AD-Anno Domini, in the year of the Lord, Jesus). Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus Christ, was born around 6 to 4 BCE in Bethlehem, and raised in Nazareth, Galilee. He was a Jewish teacher and a religious leader considered to be the Son of God, who taught a message of love, forgiveness, repentance, and the coming of the Kingdom of God, performing miracles and gathering disciples in Roman-occupied Judea. Jesus was crucified in CE 30 or 33 in Jerusalem under the Roman Empire’s Governor of Judea, Pontius Pilate. Jesus is said to have risen from the dead, forming the foundation of Christianity as the Son of God and Saviour.

The Romans themselves practiced a polytheistic religion simply called ‘Roman Religion’, worshipping many Gods and Goddesses heavily influenced by Greek mythology.

Jesus taught in a direct, often parabolic style- using stories, metaphors, analogies, focusing on the heart, love, and the Kingdom of God rather than complex rules. Some of the best are: Love your neighbour as yourself; do to others as you would have them do to you; forgive others just as God forgives you, be merciful, as your heavenly Father is merciful, judge not, and you will not be judged; the greatest in the Kingdom is the servant of all, be humble like a child; the World belongs to the poor in spirit, the meek, the merciful, and those who hunger for righteousness; have childlike faith and trust in God as a loving Father; do not worry about tomorrow.

Jesus often used parables about lost sheep, prodigal sons, good Samaritans, and hidden treasures to show that God’s love is for everyone-especially the outsiders, sinners, and marginalized — and that true life springs from a personal relationship with God rather than religious performance.

While Jesus was spreading his message of love, we return to the Sangam period of South India. In about the 1st century CE, a Chola King, Karikala Chola won a famous battle defeating a confederacy of the Cheras, Pandyas, and other chiefs, marking the rise of the Early Chola Empire (Another Chola Empire called the Imperial Cholas would rise in 848 CE). He is the greatest early Chola King. He built the engineering marvel, the Kallanai (Grand Anicut) Dam, an ancient dam across the Kaveri River near Tiruchirappalli. This structure, still functional after 2,000 years, regulated floods, prevented droughts, and boosted agriculture in the delta-one of the world’s oldest functional water-regulating structures. The dam is constructed from rough stones, cleverly placed to withstand the river’s flow without the use of binding modern-day cement. The design was a simple, yet ingenious check dam that runs parallel to the riverbank, diverting water rather than storing massive amounts like modern reservoirs.

Karikala Chola enhanced trade, irrigation networks, and prosperity. Poems like Pattinappalai glorify his rule, his port city, and his generosity to poets. The early capitals were Uraiyur or Tiruchirapalli and Kaveripattinam.

About this period, also in the 1st century CE, Kaundinya, a legendary Indian mariner, regarded as one of the earliest Indian sailors, undertook a long-distance sea voyage across the Indian Ocean to Southeast Asia, sailing from present day Odisha.

Kaundinya was probably a merchant seeking opportunities in the lucrative maritime networks of the time. He cleverly used the monsoon winds to cross the Bay of Bengal, carrying goods like textiles and jewellery. Upon reaching the Mekong Delta,Vietnam, he was attacked by pirates and local forces led by a formidable warrior princess, Soma, a member of the indigenous Naga clan. Kaundinya fought back successfully and fended off the attackers. But his ship was breached and had to be grounded for repairs. Rather than escalating into prolonged conflict, the encounter turned into one of mutual respect and admiration. Soma, impressed by Kaundinya’s prowess and wisdom, proposed marriage. He accepted, and their union symbolized a cultural and political alliance. Kaundinya became her consort, and together they co-founded the ancient Kingdom of Funan, with its early capital at Vyadhapura (in present day Cambodia). The dynasty drew inspiration from Indian models of governance, law, and brahmanical traditions, marking the beginning of significant Indian cultural influence in the region-through trade, Hinduism, and administrative practices-while blending with local customs. Kaundinya was the first Indian mariner to have made such a impactful transoceanic journey and left a lasting historical footprint. Funan became a prosperous trading hub, facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and religions between India, China, and beyond.

Recently, Kaundinya’s legacy was revived in India through the INSV Kaundinya, a modern Indian Navy sailing vessel built using ancient ‘stitched-plank’ techniques (inspired by Ajanta cave paintings) and inducted in 2025. It honoured Kaundinya as a symbol of India’s forgotten seafaring heritage, with a voyage retracing ancient Indian Ocean routes. It highlighted him as a pivotal figure who demonstrated India’s early maritime capabilities at a time when long sea voyages were rare and often viewed with caution.

While Kaundinya was settling down into a happy married life, the Roman Empire was under decline, on its last wobbly legs. And in India, about 380 CE, a new Empire was rising, with the establishment of the Gupta Dynasty under Chandragupta II. The Gupta Era is known as a the ‘Golden Age’ of ancient India for advancements in mathematics, astronomy, literature, and art.

Chandragupta II, also known as Chandragupta Vikramaditya, 375–415 CE, was the greatest emperor of the Gupta Empire. He was the son of Samudragupta, who vastly expanded the Gupta Kingdom founded by his father Chandragupta I. Samudragupta is often called the ‘Napoleon of India’ -due his military strategies-and remained undefeated in battle, until the end of his reign. Chandragupta Vikramaditya built upon his father’s successful military campaigns and expanded the empire significantly defeating the Western Kshatrapas (Shakas) in Gujarat and Malwa, which brought vast wealth and access to western trade routes. His reign marked the peak of Gupta prosperity, with flourishing art, literature, science, and culture.

Kalidasa, who was a poet in the Gupta Court wrote the epic Sakuntala. He is often regarded as the greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist of classical India- also called the ‘Shakespeare of India’. The play tells the romantic story of King Dushyanta and Sakuntala and explores themes of love, separation, and reunion. Their son, Bharata, becomes the legendary ancestor of the Bharata dynasty (after whom India is named). Mathematician Aryabhata lived in the period. Zero was invented. The ancient Gupta text Kamasutra by the Indian scholar Vatsyayana is widely considered to be the standard work on human sexual behaviour in Sanskrit literature. Nalanda University was established. Chess was developed during this time. The outstanding paintings in the Ajanta and Ellora caves came into being, and it was a period of revival of Hinduism and tolerance of Jainism and Buddhism.

The Roman Empire collapsed in 476 CE. And about a century later, a new religion came into being, ‘invented’ by Mahomet, in the manner an adventurer, say Columbus, discovered a new continent, say America. Mahomet, later becoming Prophet Muhammad, laid the foundation of Islam in 610 CE. He took off from the Kaaba- the cubic building, often called the ‘Cubic Temple’- in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, which today remains the central shrine of Islam. It houses a reddish-Black Stone, semi-circular, six inches high, eight broad (said to have fallen from a meteor, from the sky) Hobal, a prominent pre-Islamic Arabian deity, among roughly 360 pagan images housed in or around the Kaaba, before Islam. It included another Idol, Al-Lat, or Al-Lah or was probably another name for Hobal. A few feet from the Cube was the well, Zem-Zem, rediscovered by Mohamet’s grandfather. This well with its brackish and luke-warm water is said to have been first discovered by Hagar, Abraham’s maid servant who gave birth to his son Ishmael (Ismail) and had to flee the wrath of his wife Sarah.

According to the Bible, Abraham (known as Ibrahim in Islam) is widely regraded as foundational patriarch of both Judaism (Jews) and Islam, as well as a key figure in Christianity. He is the central ancestral and spiritual figure linking the three major Abrahamic religions. Abraham’s descendants through Isaac and Jacob inherited the land of Canaan(modern-day Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan). Jews traditionally trace their lineage and national identity directly to Abraham as the founder of the Jewish people. He is often called ‘Avraham Avinu’ (Abraham our father) in Jewish tradition. Muslims trace the Arab people and, by extension, the Prophet Muhammad’s lineage through Abraham’s firstborn son Ismail. Islamic tradition holds that Abraham and Ismail rebuilt or founded the Kaaba in Mecca as a house of worship.

When Prophet Muhammad-after establishing Islam- along with his followers, conquered Mecca in 630 CE, he ordered the removal and destruction of all idols and images from the Kaaba, rededicating the structure to the worship of the one God (Allah) alone. No pre-Islamic idols, including Hobal, remain inside or associated with the Kaaba today. The site is under Saudi Arabian management and continues to host millions of pilgrims annually. The Kaaba has been rebuilt and renovated many times over history (due to floods, wars, etc.), but its core role and the Black Stone’s placement remain unchanged in Islamic practice.

Prophet Muhammad’s companions wrote and compiled the Koran-consisting of about 114 Suras (Chapters) based on oral revelations to him by Allah, through the Angel Gabriel. When Mohamet was 25 years old he accepted a marriage proposal from a rich widow, Khadija, 40 years old, who helped him with the revelations. Previously he had worked for her as a driver in a caravan expedition. These revelations occurred over about 23 years. Muhammad, who was illiterate, recited the revelations to his companions, who memorized and wrote them down on materials like palm leaves, bones, and parchment. After Muhammad’s death in 632 CE, the revelations were compiled into a single book- the Koran-under the first Islamic Caliph, Abu Bakr.

Prophet Muhammad first launched Islam in Mecca, where he faced stubborn resistance and persecution and had to migrate to Medina (the Hijra). Later he returned to conquer Mecca. The original intent was to get back business to his home town as the rich caravan cities had fallen into abandonment and ruin. The people at that time lived off the transcontinental road traffic: lodging, feeding and robbing travellers. But then, the change Muhammad imposed upon the world through Islam outstrips that of many Adventurers, Explorers, Kings, Emperors in history, and shows the difference a single man can make. And one of the biggest Empires to rise with Islam at the core was the Ottoman Empire.

Returning to India, the Cholas under Vijayalaya Chola, a descendant of Karikala Chola- of the Early Cholas- rose again from obscurity to run a memorable second innings of the Chola Dynasty. He exploited the intense rivalry and frequent wars between the Pallavas and Pandyas, which weakened both major powers, creating a power vacuum in the fertile Kaveri delta region. Vijayalaya quickly filled it, when around 848–850 CE with a well-organized military force he captured Thanjavur and then there was no looking back. His son Aditya Chola I, who succeeded him expanded further laying the foundation of the Imperial Chola Empire. After Aditya’s death, his son Parantaka took over and ruled for about 48 years. He was one of the most powerful early Imperial Cholas. He comprehensively defeated the Pandyas and earned the title ‘Maduraikonda’ (Conqueror of Madurai).

And after a brief period of weak Chola Rulers, emerged Arulmozhivarman who later became Rajaraja Chola I (985–1014 CE)- the real Architect of the Empire and the greatest ruler of the early Imperial phase. He consolidated and vastly expanded the Chola Empire conquering the entire Pandya and Chera kingdoms. He also defeated the Sinhalese King Mahinda V and occupied northern Sri Lanka. He launched successful naval expeditions to the Maldives.

The Cholas were followers of Hinduism, specifically the Shaivite (Shiva-worshipping) tradition. They were great patrons of Shaivism, building magnificent temples dedicated to Lord Shiva. Rajaraja Chola built the iconic Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur-now a UNESCO World Heritage Site and architectural marvel. He took the title Rajaraja (King of Kings).

His son Rajendra Chola I (1014–1044 CE), an equally powerful Chola emperor, continued and even surpassed his father’s achievements. He completed the conquest of Sri Lanka-annexing the entire island; launched a massive naval expedition against the Srivijaya Empire (present-day Indonesia, Malaysia, and Sumatra); defeated several Southeast Asian kingdoms and secured trade routes. He Conquered Kalinga, and parts of Bengal in the north and reached the Ganges River- earning the title ‘Gangaikonda’ (Conqueror of the Ganges). He founded a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram and built the magnificent Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple (another Brihadeeswara style temple) in present day Ariyalur District of Tamil Nadu. His reign marked the peak territorial extent of the Chola Empire: from the Ganges in the north to Sri Lanka in the south, and with influence across the Indian Ocean.

One of the last Cholas, Rajaraja II generally ruled in peace up to CE 1173. In total, the Cholas ruled for about 400 glorious years.

For more angles on the Great Cholas read:

https://kumargovindan.com/2025/08/13/freewheeling-9/

In my next adventure, I take you through Genghis Khan’s Mongol Empire, India’s Prithviraj Chauhan and the rumblings of the invasion of India. And the great Ottoman Empire, ending this series of essays.

FREEWHEELING

About: A break free commentary on events on our Planet, anchored on the news of the world. Any comments beyond the storyline, are entirely mine, without prejudice -take it or leave it. This is a flight of events from 27 July 2025 to 14 August 2025: All kinds of wars; the great Cholas of India; the best of Chess, Football, and Cricket.

Wars: Tariff Included

US President Donald Trump continues his relentless one-minded drive on imposing tariffs on friends and foes alike, ostensibly to improve the US Economy by opening the flood gates of tonnes of cash flow into the country. This time it hit India when he signed an executive order slapping 25% additional tariff over the purchase of Russian oil. This is on top of the 25% tariff that Trump had previously imposed on India on 31st July, as part of the broader rollout of tariffs on more than 60 countries. This will come into effect on 27th August.With this, India faces at total of least 50 %-among the highest in the world. This will come into effect on 27th August. However, for goods shipped before 27th August previous tariff rates will apply until 17th September.

The tariff sledgehammer comes after days of Trump slamming India its purchase of Russian oil and accusing India of funding the Russian war on Ukraine. He said India remains the largest buyer of Russian oil along with China “at a time when everyone wants Russia to stop the killing in Ukraine”. With such purchases, he said India does not care “how many people in Ukraine are being killed by the Russian war machine”. Since Russia launched the full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, India has bought discounted Russian oil.

India hit back, exposing the hypocrisy and double-standards of the US and Europe. In a clear written statement, India pointed out that the Europe-Russia trade includes not just energy, but also fertilisers, mining products, chemicals, iron & steel and machinery, and transport equipment. The United States itself continues to import Russian uranium hexafluoride for its nuclear industry, palladium for its EV industry, fertilisers, as well as chemicals. India held that it began importing from Russia, in the first place, because traditional supplies from Europe were diverted to within Europe after the outbreak of the Russia-Ukraine War. And India works for the best interests of its people, just as the US does for its people.

On another front, India and the US are engaged in complex negotiations for a free trade agreement. As with trade deals with other countries such as the United Kingdom, India has sought to keep the politically sensitive agriculture and dairy sectors out of a deal, Trump has rejected the proposal and has pushed for their inclusion. He has also pushed for India to import genetically modified (GM) crops under the deal. India considers GM crops illegal.

In the ongoing physical wars, Israel is making plans to take complete control of Gaza City with its cabinet approving the intent. And the 50 hostages still remain in captivity. Meanwhile, Australia announced that it would recognise a Palestinian State in September.I would say that countries -including India -should announced that they would ‘de-recognise’ Palestine, if the 50 Israel hostages are not released by September.

Ukraine and Russia continue making fire and a Trump-Putin Summit scheduled to take place in Alaska on 15 August, hopes to break the ceasefire deadlock. Russia is expected to demand Ukrainian land for a peace deal, which Ukraine steadfastedly refuses. Trump would probably be ‘all ears’ on a listening exercise. And Putin is a tough customer.

The Great Cholas of South India

Indian history does not cut enough into the meat of the mighty Chola Dynasty of South India, which ruled for an unbelievable 1500 years, between 300 BCE and 1279 CE(AD)- one of the longest ruling dynasties in world history. They remain grudgingly unknown, and if at all in bits and pieces. The Cholas ruled Southern India in two stints as, the Early Cholas, and the Medieval or Imperial Cholas.

This is an attempt to shed bright sunlight, on the great Cholas, who considered themselves as descendants of the Sun.

Other names, in common use, for the Cholas are, Choda, Killi, Valavan, Sembiyan and Cenni.Killi comes from the Tamil ‘kil’ meaning dig or cleave- a digger or a tiller of the land. Valavan is connected with the Tamil ‘valam’ fertility and means owner or ruler of a fertile country. Sembiyan means a descendant of King Shibi – a legendary King whose self-sacrifice in saving a dove from the hot-pursuit of a falcon figures among the early Chola legends. The story flies like this, ‘As King Shibi sat in court one day, a sparrow sought refuge in his lap, while being chased by a falcon. The falcon demanded the King release the sparrow, as it constituted its means of subsistence. Accepting the falcon’s right, the King offered his own flesh in order to fulfil his sovereign duty of protecting his subjects’. The later Cholas claimed to have descended from King Shibi. The Tamil name for Shibi is Sembiyan, a name assumed by many Chola kings.

The Early Cholas ruled in Uraiyur (now Tiruchirapalli) and Kaveripattinam, Tamil Nadu, during the period 400 BCE to 200 AD. This includes the Sangam Period, which legendary literature reveals the first authentic evidence of the Chola dynasty. The Sangam is the literary gathering of Tamil poets and scholars who were first patronised by the Pandyan kings of Madurai. The Sangam era is significant in the development of early Tamil literature and provides valuable insights into the social, cultural, and political landscape of the period.

Going back in time, the earliest known Chola King was Kantaman, perhaps mythological, said to be a contemporary of the Hindu Sage Agastya, whose devotion is believed to have brought the River Kaveri into existence (from the water pot of Agastya). Then came the Chola King Dharmavarma who first developed the shrine of the Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple– A Vaishnavite shrine dedicated to Lord Ranganatha (a form of Lord Vishnu and his consort Ranganayaki – a form of Goddess Lakshmi) near present day Tiruchi. The temple is a thriving place of Hindu worship of Vaishnavism. Flooding of the River Kaveri destroyed the temple, and later, his descendant, King Killivalavan rebuilt the temple complex. The Temple site is on an island bounded by the Rive Kaveri and River Kollidam. Later Chola Kings built upon and expanded the Temple structure. The Temple is nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the oldest functioning religious complexes in the world.

In 190 AD Karikala Chola or, Karikala The Great, stands out, unsurpassed, along with another King Kocengannan. Karikala was the son of the great warrior Chola King Ilamcetcenni – of many beautiful chariots. Karaikala is mentioned as the descendant of a King who compelled the wind to serve his purposes when he sailed his ships on the great Oceans. ‘Karikala’ means ‘elephant feller’ or ‘charred leg’. He had charred his leg in a fire-accident while escaping when he was deposed and imprisoned. He then fought his way back to the throne to create History.

Karikala Cholan was one of the greatest kings during the Sangam Age in South India. He led the Chola empire successfully to unify the three South Indian kingdoms of Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas. Karikala gained immense wealth trading with the Roman Empire, which he used to fund his military campaigns and to build towns and cities. He is known for decorating his capital city of Kanchipuram with gold, but his legendary act of fame was building, ‘The Grand Anicut’ – Kallanai Dam – on the River Kaveri.

Kallanai Dam is a massive dam of un-hewn stone, 329m long, 20m wide, and 5.4 m high built across the main stream of the River Kaveri. It is the oldest water-diversion or water-regulating structure in the world, which is still in use. The dam cleverly diverts the waters of the Kaveri River across the Thanjavur delta region for irrigation through a canal system which originally irrigated near about 69,000 acres. In the 18th century, the Kallanai Dam was modified with hydraulic structures and now, after such alterations, irrigates over one million acres.

Upon the end of the Sangam Era, in the period from 300 AD to 600 AD there is almost a total black-out of the history of Southern India, Tamil Nadu in particular. Elsewhere, during this time in India, the Gupta Empire was established and flourished, rising to great heights. Kalidasa, the author of Shakuntala, was a poet in the Gupta court. Mathematician Aryabhata lived in the period. Zero was invented. The ancient Gupta text Kamasutra by Indian scholar Vatsyayana, in Sanskrit, came into being. Nalanda University was established. Chess was developed during this time. Meanwhile, outside India, Islam came into being in the sixth century AD.

Then in the eight century, the Cholas rose from obscurity to hit the headlines, again. Vijayalaya Chola, a descendant of the Early Cholas founded the Imperial Chola Empire in 848 AD, finding his own ground in the then ongoing conflict between the Pandya and Pallava Empires. He captured Thanjavur and made it his capital. His son Aditya-I teamed-up with the Pallavas to defeat the Pandyas of Madurai in 885 AD, and later went-on to defeat the Pallavas themselves. In 925, Aditya’s son Parantaka-I conquered Sri Lanka. Then there was a mild set-back with Cholas’ heir apparent Rajaditya Chola killed in battle. Subsequently, the Cholas quickly found their feet, and recovered power during the reign of Parantaka II (Sundara Chola). Sundara Chola had three children, crown Prince Aditya Karikalan (Aditya -II), Princess Kundavai and Prince Arumozhivarman (the future Raja Raja Chola I) the youngest. The Cholas, under the command of fearsome Aditya-II, defeated the Pandyas and further expanded the kingdom. Aditya-II died under mysterious circumstances -he may have been assassinated. On the death of Sundara Chola, his brother’s son Madhurantakan was crowned King with the title Uttama Chola. Arumozhivarman ascended the throne in mid 985 AD and adopted the regal name Raja Raja, meaning ‘King among Kings’.

The story of Arumozhivarman is the plot of the famous novel Ponniyin Selvan by Tamil author Kalki, which to a great extent brought out and kept alive the story of the Cholas.The story ran through real historical sites and galvanised interest in the Cholas.

When Raja Raja Chola -I came to power, he inherited a small kingdom centred around the Thanjavur–Tiruchirappalli region, the heart of traditional Chola territory.

And under Raja Raja -I and his son Rajendra I, the Chola Empire reach its Imperial state. At its peak, the empire stretched from the northern parts of Sri Lanka northwards to the Godavari–Krishna river basin, up to the Konkan coast, the entire Malabar Coast, in addition to Lakshadweep and the Maldives islands. The Cholas wielded a formidable navy, securing extensive maritime routes and expanding their influence into South East Asia.

Rajaraja Chola I was a dynamic ruler who applied himself to the task of governance with the same diligence and zeal he had shown in waging wars. He integrated his empire into a tight, administrative grid under royal control and strengthened local self-government. In 1000 AD, Raja Raja conducted a land survey to effectively marshal his empire’s resources. He built the iconic Brihadeeswarar Temple, in Thanjavur, in 1010. Raja Raja Chola died of natural causes in 1014 AD, after ruling for 30 years, and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola-I.

Rajendra Chola-I took off from the strong shoulders of his illustrious father, scaling even greater heights and is easily the greatest Chola King who ever lived.

Rajendra conquered Odisha and his armies continued north into Bengal, and reached the Ganges river in northern India. Rajendra successfully invaded the Srivijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia, which led to the decline of that empire. This expedition left an indelible impression on the Malay people of the medieval period where his name is mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan. Rajendra’s territories included the Ganges–Hooghly–Damodar basin, as well as Sri Lanka and the Maldives. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty. Diplomatic missions were sent to China in 1016, 1033, and 1077. Rajendra Chola commanded the largest blue water navy in Indian history, which he used it effectively to subdue Srivijaya, a southeast Asian kingdom that lay 3000 km away.

Realising that the traditional Chola capital of Thanjavur was literally bursting at the seams, and could not hold his dreams, Rajendra built himself a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram, which served as the Chola capital for the next 250 years. He built the Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple in 1025 AD, symbolising Chola victory over the northern kingdoms and the successful Gangetic conquest. To anoint his new capital city with water from the sacred River Ganga he sent his army on a long expedition from Thanjavur all the way to modern day Bangladesh. His army defeated many kingdoms en route, and brought back water from the Ganga. He poured this holy water into a lake he built, the Chola Gangam, one of the largest manmade lakes in India. Gangaikonda Cholan literally means the Chola king who conquered the (plains of) River Ganga. Born on 26 July 971 AD, Rajendra Chola died in 1044 AD at age 73.

Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple is a masterpiece of Chola architecture with unmatched architectural grandeur, embodying spiritual and cultural brilliance. It reflects Dravidian temple architecture with an emphasis on vertical elevation, axial symmetry, and Shaiva symbolism. It is inspired by the Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur (built by Rajaraja Chola I), but with a shorter yet broader vimana (temple tower). Elaborate sculptural friezes, including depictions of Shiva in various forms, sophisticated hydraulic engineering in temple tank design, showcasing advanced water management techniques, subtle Tamil inscriptions in Grantha (script) and Tamil scripts, preserving Tamil heritage. That the temple is a UNESCO World Heritage site, is a testament to the Chola dynasty’s power and architectural prowess.

Both Saivism (worship of Lord Shiva) and Vaishnavism (worship of Lord Vishnu) flourished during the Chola period. A number of temples were built with the patronage of Chola kings and queens, which remained centres of economic activity.

Much of Tamil classical literature and the greater Tamil architectural monuments belong to the Sangam period, which also saw a revival of Shaivism and the development of southern Vaishnavism.

During the reign of Rajendra Chola, the Chola Empire reached its zenith in the Indian subcontinent; it extended its reach via trade and conquest across the Indian Ocean, making Rajendra one of only a few Indian monarchs who conquered territory beyond South Asia.The Chola fleet represented the peak of ancient Indian maritime capacity. The 1,000-year legacy of the Bhakti movement, maritime diplomacy, and temple-based urban culture that flourished under the Chola Empire.

Around 1070, the Cholas began to lose almost all of their overseas territories but the later Cholas (1070–1279) continued to rule portions of southern India. The Chola empire went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandya dynasty, which ultimately caused the Chola’s downfall.

Now, coming over to the present.

India celebrated, with gusto, the millennium birth anniversary of Rajendra Chola-I on 26 July along with the Aadi Thiruvathirai Festival held between 23rd July and 27th July 2025 at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, near Jayankondam, Ariyalur District, Tamil Nadu.

India’s Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated the celebrations and brought back focus and much deserved ‘attention to the matter’ on the great Cholas. He repeated the Rajendra Chola act of bringing holy water from the Ganges.

Here is a more detailed essay on the outstanding, mind-boggling contribution by the Cholas in art, architecture, and literature. Also to kindle your interest on the unforgettable Cholas. Sit back, and enjoy a time-machine return to India’s magnificent, ancient history.

The Chola reign marked a stupendous golden era in South India, blending religion, culture, and craftsmanship in monumental structures and intricate sculpture. The Cholas mastered metalworking techniques and perfected the art of bronze casting, producing precision detailed sculptures, particularly of deities. The iconic Nataraja sculpture of Lord Shiva, in the cosmic dance pose, is globally recognised for its depiction of motion and balance. Artisans realistically portrayed human figures, capturing physical beauty and emotional expression: the bronze figure of Sambandar – a child saint – is a testimony to this; the bronze figurines of Parvati (the consort of Lord Shiva) and Lord Vishnu showcase skill in representing ornate details such as garments and jewellery.

Art was deeply intertwined with religious themes, portraying complex symbolism in sculptures. The Ardhanareeshvara sculptures, which depict Shiva as half male and half female, symbolise the unity of opposites.

The Chola temples are adorned with magnificent sculptures that portray scenes from mythology and religious epics.The Brihadeeshwara Temple,Thanjavur, features numerous intricate carvings of gods, dancers, and animals. Chola art influenced classical Indian dance forms, particularly through depiction of divine dancers. The Nataraja in ‘Ananda-Tandava’ pose inspired traditional Bharatanatyam dance forms.

Chola art frequently depicted scenes from mythological texts, helping to preserve and propagate religious stories through visual art. Sculptures from the Airavatesvara Temple at Dharasuram, Kumbakonam, show scenes from the lives of saints and deities.

The Cholas perfected the Dravidian style of temple architecture, characterised by towering vimanas or gopurams (towering gateway structures at entrance of Hindu temples) The Brihadeeshwara Temple is a masterpiece of Chola temple architecture, standing as one of India’s largest temples.

The Cholas introduced gopurams – probably first thought of by the Pallavas but developed by the Cholas and later made better and bigger by the Vijayanagar Dynasty – that became an iconic feature of South Indian temples. Chola temples are known for their massive scale and advanced engineering techniques, especially in the construction of monoliths. The granite monolith of Nandi at Brihadeeshwara Temple weighs over 20 tons and is an engineering marvel. Cholas innovated by using both stone and brick in temple construction, allowing for more elaborate designs and stronger structures: again, the Airavatesvara Temple is a prime example.

Chola architecture extended its influence beyond India, particularly in Southeast Asia: The temples of Angkor Wat in Cambodia portray features reminiscent of Chola architectural styles, reflecting their global influence. The Cholas incorporated water management systems like temple tanks and reservoirs into their temple complexes: the pushkarinis (a stepped temple tank) at Gangaikonda Cholapuram were essential for ritual purification and water conservation: The Chola architectural style laid the foundation for later South Indian dynasties, particularly the Vijayanagar Empire, which continued and expanded on Chola architectural innovations, especially the lofty gopuram style.

The Cholas, through their unparalleled contributions to art and architecture, left a legacy that continues to inspire admiration. Their innovations in bronze sculpture, religious iconography, and monumental temple architecture elevated the Dravidian style to its peak, influencing future generations. Although the Chola empire has faded, their artistic achievements remain immortal, showcasing the artistic and architectural brilliance of medieval South India.

The Cholas patronised and advanced Tamil literature, fostering distinguished poets like Kalladanar(Kalladar), Kamban, and Avvaiyar. Kalladanar’s Kalladam (of Lord Muruga) celebrated Lord Shiva, while Thiruttakkadevar’s Seevaka Cinthamani (one of 5 great Tamil Epics) introduced Jainism to Tamil audiences. The epic is the story of a Prince who is a perfect master of all arts, perfect warrior, and perfect lover.

Despite the Chola rulers’ support for Sanskrit, original Tamil works thrived, with Poet Kamban translating Valmiki’s Ramayana – as Kamba Ramayana- enriching Tamil literature’s evolution.

In the beginning of 10th century, a Nayanmar saint Nambi Aandar Nambi wrote the ’Tiruttoonar Tiruvandhadhi, which is a memoir on the lives of the 63 Nayanmars (Tamil Saivite Saints). In 11th century, Nambi Aandar Nambi as the court poet of Raja Raj Chola compiled the hymns of the Nayanmar saints in Tirumurai, which is considered to be one of the greatest text of Nayanmar saints. The Tamil ‘Naalayira Divya Prabandham’ – 4000 divine verses- was composed by Alvar Poigai during the Chola reign. Rajaraja I was instrumental in bringing back Thevaram (the first seven volumes of the Tirumurai, a collection of devotional poetry dedicated to Lord Shiva) in the Shaiva tradition.

Classical dances like Bharatnatyam flourished during the Chola period primarily due to the Devadasi system. Cholas also patronised the bamboo staff fencing marital art Silambam. The representation of Nataraja or Adal Vallan (king of dance) in the form of the idol was the motif of Tamil music, dance and drama with hymns composed by Nayanmars. e.g. Oduvars and Padikam Paduvars: They were appointed to sing in the temples to recite Thirumurai.

The Cholas decentralized administration, allowing local leaders and village assemblies (sabhas) to exercise autonomy. This allowed the empire to maintain control over vast territories while fostering strong local governance. The Kudavolai system was used for local elections. It involved writing names of eligible candidates on palm leaves, which where then dropped into a pot and drawn out by a young boy -selecting representatives.

On the commerce front, Ports like Nagapattinam became thriving centres of international trade, with the Cholas exporting textiles, spices, and jewels.

That’s a breathtaking history of the Great Cholas.

Flash Floods

A massive cloudburst triggered heavy rains and flash floods in the northern Indian state of Uttarakhand. A flood of water came down, swelling the Kheerganga river and sending tonnes of muddy waters gushing downwards on the hilly terrain, covering roads, buildings and shops in Dharali Village – a tourist spot populated with hotels, resorts and restaurants.

Sports

India’s Chess International Master (IM) Divya Deshmukh all of 19 years, won the 2025 FIDE Women’s World Cup beating fellow Indian Grand Master (GM) Humpy Koneru in the tiebreaks. Through this victory she also achieves GM status- and a new star is born. She is now the 44th woman to hold the GM title. It was a magnificent feat for the talented and mentally tough Divya.

Divya Deshmukh was born in Nagpur, Maharashtra and hails from a Marathi family. Her parents are both medical doctors.

England’s Women earned its place in women’s football history with a stunning penalty-shootout victory over Spain to retain their European title at Euro 2025, on 27 July. Chloe Kelly, who scored the iconic winner at UK’s Wembley Stadium in the final of Euro 2022, was the hero again as she converted the decisive spot-kick to seal victory after Spain had missed three in a row – England’s goal-keeper saved two of them. It is the first time an England team has won a major trophy on foreign soil – at St. Jakob-Park in Basel, Switzerland -and seals manager Sarina Wiegman’s status as one of the world’s greatest with her third successive European title – achieved with two countries.

England’s Men came close to the winning ways of the women but India stole their thunder. The enthralling 2-2 draw for the Anderson-Tendulkar Trophy between England and India provided a dramatic start to the new cricket World Test Championship cycle. It was an epic contest, each of the five Tests going into the final day, four in fact into the final session, providing some of the best individual and collective performances the five-day format has seen in recent years.

Cricket pundits had predicted a clean sweep for England, what with the home advantage and India’s pre-series struggles. Whitewashed 0-3 at home by New Zealand, followed by a 3-1 drubbing by Australia down under in two preceding series, India looked vulnerable and wobbly.

The England-India Test series was a five Test one. And with the 4th Test at Old Trafford, Manchester ending in a draw India came to the Oval in London trailing England 1-2 in the series. But then India won by six runs to level the series 2-2 in one of the most dramatic conclusions in Test Cricket history. England were denied a record-breaking run chase by an irresistible India.

How India held their nerve under immense pressure – driven by willpower, ambition, and skill – culminating in a thrilling comeback to win and level the series, is one of Test cricket’s most riveting tales. It also marks this Indian young team’s transition from apprehension and misgivings one of rich promise fuelled by ambition and excellence. The future looks bright for this Indian team.

More captivating stories blending the past with the present, coming-up in the weeks ahead. Stay with Freewheeling.