Tag: religion

The Dawn & Ascent of Civilizations

About: In my previous post I wrote about the origin of the Universe, from the Big Bang, through the beginning of life, up to the sole surviving human species: Homo sapiens-that’s who we are. In this post, I take you from the Hunter-gatherer mode through the formation of the first human Civilizations and Empires, up to the beginning of the Roman Empire. Again, this is an attempt to bring together various stories on our ancient history, with brevity mostly on my side and minimum technical jargon. (Image Credit: Canva AI).

First, a quick chronological recap of my earlier post – years from the present:

Big Bang: 13.70 billion; Formation of our Galaxy The Milky Way, the Solar System and Planet Earth 4.6 billion; First Bacteria-3.8 million; Oxygenation of Earth-2.4 billion: Multi-cellular Algae-1 billion; Multicellular organisms-550 million; Dinosaurs-230 million; Hominids, Southern ape, Last Common Grandmother of Humans and Chimpanzees-4 to7 million; Homo species-200,000 to 300,000; Only surviving Human species, Homo sapiens-13,000. In case you missed the story, or you want to go back in time and read again, you can do it at:

https://kumargovindan.com/2026/02/05/origin-big-bang-to-humans/

Hunter-Gatherers to Agriculture

We humans lived as simple hunter-gatherers for the vast majority, about 95%, of our existence, as small, nomadic groups foraging wild plants, hunting animals; using increasingly sophisticated stone tools; learning to make and control fire; creating art-mostly as cave paintings; developing complex social structures and, most importantly, language. Population remained low (a few million globally), with high mobility and intimate knowledge of the environment.

Language was key, used to communicate among humans, describe things, anchor learnings, build knowledge (where to hunt?), and share information, which other animals could not do as smartly as humans did, thanks to man’s ability to think. The languages that emerged in different parts of the world, from grouping of humans, and growth of civilizations, are very different from each other, though there are hints of some co-mingling in common-sounding words. This period is also called the Cognitive Revolution.

Modern humans migrated out of Africa in waves, reaching Eurasia, Australia (65,000 years ago), and eventually the Americas (15,000 to 20,000 years ago). Hunter-gatherer lifestyles continued, adapting to diverse environments, until the end of the last Ice Age, specifically the last glacial period -Peak Cold or Last Glacial Maximum – which occurred approximately 115,000 to 17,000 years ago. During this time, massive ice sheets, often 3 to 4 kilometres thick, covered large parts of North America and Europe, lowering sea levels by about 125 meters.

Recall, Dinosaurs ruled our Planet Earth for a ‘massive’ 165 million years, and humans had still not evolved at that time. But during the Ice Age, man was around with other kinds of ‘Dinosaur-sized’ animals.

The Ice Age animals were mostly large-bodied megafauna adapted to freezing, shifting environments, with iconic species, including Woolly Mammoths, Glyptodon -an extinct group of large, herbivorous Armadillos- Saber-toothed Cats, Mastodons, Woolly Rhinoceroses, and Giant Ground Sloths. These animals coexisted with early humans including the Human species of Neanderthals, in Europe and North America before going extinct roughly 10,000–13,500 years ago, due to environmental changes and maybe because of the dominating force of Homo sapiens. Could man have wiped-out the Mammoths (for their tusks, wool, and meat, for survival)?

The single most transformative shift occurred after the Ice Age ended. Humans began domesticating plants for food, such as, wheat, barley, rice, and maize; and animals such as sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs. Call it the Agricultural Revolution. This allowed sedentary, permanent settlements and food storage of surpluses, population growth, specialisation of labor, utensils making-pottery, cloth making-weaving, and more advanced tools. This transition from foraging to farming was gradual, but revolutionary, enabling the rise of villages, and eventually towns and cities. Agricultural surpluses supported larger, denser populations and social complexity.

On the tools front, man gradually transitioned from using stone tools to those made from advance metalworking. The Bronze Age, about 3,300 BCE to 1,200 BCE, saw the use of copper-tin alloys for tools and weapons. The Iron Age followed with man learning to make and use Iron, and eventually leading to making of steel-man needed steel-blade swords to fight his own kind, and for survival.

Then came the first human civilizations, made up of urban societies with writing, monumental architecture, centralised governance, and social hierarchy. These were founded predominantly in river valleys-for life-giving water, enabling cultivation of flora, and raising fauna, for human consumption.

On the sidelines, there is substantial evidence suggesting man did eat man, his own kind-cannibalism-throughout human evolution, in multiple contexts such as nutritional survival, ritualistic purposes, or cultural reasons. Cannibalism wasn’t universal or constant and was prevalent in early species such as Homo erectus, Neanderthals, and early Homo sapiens.

Ancient Civilizations

The earliest human civilization sprung in what is called the Fertile Crescent Area, which is a crescent-shaped region in the Middle East, often called the Cradle of Civilization, where early agriculture and settled societies began. It included: Mesopotamia-the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, mostly modern-day Iraq, plus parts of Syria, Turkey, and Iran; the Levant-modern Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, ancient Israel; and some extensions to the Nile Valley in Egypt.

There were also 5 other pristine Cradles of Civilization across the World: 1-Ancient Egypt along the River Nile; 2-Mesoamerica-the region spanning southern Mexico through Central America (Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica); 3-Andes, Lake Titicaca; 4-Indus Valley, India; and 5-China, the Yellow River.

The first ever human civilization was that of the Sumerians, in southern Mesopotamia, which emerged about 4,500 to 4,000 BCE. It is often regarded as one of the world’s first true civilizations, with development of independent City-States such as Uruk, Ur, Eridu, Kish, Lagash, and Nippur, which had their own rulers called Ensi or Kings, temples, governments, writing-cuneiform- irrigation systems, and organized society. They also had conflicts for dominance.

The Sumerians were later conquered by the Akkadians leading to the establishment of The Akkadian Empire-probably the first Empire or Superpower of the World-of Mesopotamia, founded by Sargon the Great. The Empire’s capital city was Akkad, which was the seat of a centralised government, uniting the Sumerian and Akkadian regions. This Empire was built upon the Sumerian culture and was multi-ethnic, blending semitic Akkadian with Sumerian. It had a system of taxation, planned economy, and engaged in military conquests. It marked a shift from City-States to Imperial Rule.

The political hegemony that was decisively taken-over by the Akkadians reached its peak when King Hammurabi of Babylonia united all of southern Mesopotamia and Babylonia, which became the great and influential centre of Mesopotamian culture. One of the first ever laws of society, called the Code of Hammurabi, was written in old Babylonian cuneiform. The Sumerian cuneiform writing system – the world’s first writing system-was adopted by the Akkadians. Cuneiform writing is characterised by wedge-shaped impressions pressed on soft callus tablets using a reed stylus. The Akkadian Empire collapsed about 2,150 BCE, due to internal rebellions, weak successors, economic strain, severe drought, and invasions by other Rulers.

The very first spoken language used by humans cannot be identified with certainty, and there is no direct evidence of what it was, which Civilization spoke it, or an exact year it began. Anthropologists estimate that the complex, fully modern human language (with grammar, syntax, and the ability to express abstract ideas) emerged gradually as Homo sapiens evolved.

Meanwhile, the Egyptian Civilization grew along the River Nile, and they developed a form of writing known as hieroglyphs – a pictorial writing system consisting of hundreds of symbols representing sound, ideas, and objects. Ancient Egypt is the second cradle of civilization: it was a remarkably stable society defined by magnificent architecture- the great Pyramids of Giza and the Valley of Kings- divine pharaohs, and rich cultural, artistic, and scientific advancements. The civilization flourished due to the predictable Nile flooding, creating a wealthy agricultural base and a powerful and enduring culture. Egyptians believed in after-life, which led to mummification of their dead. The Egyptian civilization fell under foreign rule, starting with the Persians, and later became part of the Roman Empire.

About this time in what was undivided India, was the third cradle of civilisation – the Indus Valley Civilization(IVC) which emerged in the cities of Harappa, Mohenjadoro, Dholavira, Ganweriwala, Lothai, and Kalibangan – all going back to as far as 3,300 BCE. It spanned much of northwestern India, Pakistan and northeastern Afghanistan, along the River Indus. I am expanding more on the India story, digressing into Genetics, in an attempt to clear the cobwebs on the origins of the people of India.

When the ancient, out-of-Africa hunter-gatherers spread out and migrated to India -and beyond- about 65,000 years-ago, those who settled in the southern peninsular India formed what is called the deeply indigenous Ancient Ancestral South Indians (AASI) hunter-gatherers. The ‘undisturbed’ tribals (e.g., Sentinelese) of Andaman & Nicobar Islands are ‘living proof’ of this ancient unalloyed ancestry. The population of the IVC developed from this AASI, Neolithic farming communities in northwestern South Asia, and Iranian farmer-related ancestry (from earlier migrations). It had zero detectable Eurasian Steppe ancestry. In the IVC, people practiced early agriculture, animal domestication, and led a settled village life. The civilization was indigenous, with technologically advanced farmers and traders. They built the world’s first planned urban cities with sophisticated drainage systems and baths. They were largely a peaceful war-free civilization, but had fortified cities.

Then the IVC mysteriously collapsed about 1,900 BCE, probably due to change in course of rivers, drought, and other environmental factors, which caused the IVC people to migrate to other parts of India. Those that went northern/western mixed with incoming migrants from the Eurasian Steppes (Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan – Yamnaya culture), to form the mixture that we call the Ancestral North Indians (ANI). Those who went southern/eastern mixed further with local AASI groups, forming Ancestral South Indians (ASI) (whose direct descendants today include many southern tribal groups).

The Vedic Aryans, language, and culture emerged within this newly admixed ANI, during the post-IVC period. There was no ‘Aryan race’ per se, in any biological, genetic, or anthropological sense. The term Aryan (Indo-Aryan or Vedic Aryans) represents a cultural linguistic group, and not a race of people. It means people who lived in what was called Aryavarta (described in Vedic texts as the land of the Aryas), historically referring to as the northern Indian subcontinent, primarily the Indo-Gangetic Plain, which boundaries included regions between the Himalayas and the Vindhya mountains. The Aryans composed the Vedas and spoke early forms of Sanskrit, and Vedic culture flourished in this region. The Rig Veda, one of the first regions scriptures, was composed between 4,000 and 3,000 years ago in old Sanskrit and passed down orally for 2,000 years before being written down. The Aryans practiced a Vedic Religion widely regarded as a major precursor or one of the key foundational strands that eventually evolved into what we now call Hinduism. They worshipped a plethora of deities (Indra, Agni, Varuna, Soma) and conducted Fire sacrifices (Yajnas), recited Ritual hymns and had priestly traditions. They had concepts like rita (cosmic order) and early ideas of dharma.

Around this time, corresponding to the Vedic Aryans, in the north (1500 BCE onward), the ASI populations practiced indigenous animistic and folk traditions-not anything resembling organized Vedic religion. These local beliefs gradually blended with incoming Vedic elements to form the diverse synthesis of the Hinduism, or Sanatana Dharma, of today.

Over time, the ANI and the ASI mixed dramatically in India, producing the genetic gradient seen in modern India and South Asia. The result is that everyone in India today is a mix of ancestry related to West Eurasians, diverse East Asian and South Asian. No Group in India can claim genetic purity. Most Genetic studies have come to the conclusion that all Indians north, south, east, west have IVC genes. Most of the migrants that came into India were male, and they mixed with the women of mostly the ANI and ASI to form the collision that is India- in fact it leans almost all towards the ASI.

The Dravidian region- primarily southern India- typically have higher ASI ancestry and lower ANI compared to northern Indo-European speakers. Genetic evidence links higher ASI proportions strongly with Dravidian languages today. The emergence of Dravidians as a linguistic and cultural group is tied to the formation of the ASI. More information will be out, once the ‘formal reports’ on the discoveries at Keeladi, Sivagalai, and Adichanallur, and other spots, near present-day Madurai, Tamil Nadu State, is published.

Going back to the Aryans. If you heard something called the Aryan Invasion Theory, forget it: there was nothing of the sort, at best migration and mixing of various lineages of people to form the Aryan culture.

The fourth cradle of civilization is that of the Chinese along the Yellow River. Ancient agricultural societies flourished such as the Yangsho and Longshan cultures leading to early dynasties such as the Xia and Shang around 2,100 to 1,600 BCE. The Yellow River provided fertile soil especially for millet farming, but was also called China’s Sorrow due to catastrophic, frequent flooding and shaped future complex water management techniques.

One of China’s first dynasties, the Xia Dynasty was founded by not by a conqueror or a warrior, but by a simple public servant, an Engineer, Da Yu, who incredibly ‘tamed’ the Yellow River. Legend says that his father called Gun, was given the task of controlling the seasonal devastating floods of the River, by the then King of the region. He failed with his technique of building dykes across the river, and was ordered by the King to be put to death-cut to pieces. His son Da Yu, who later became the ‘Great Yu’, then took on the job, and working ferociously hard, found a way. He confused the River by dividing it, having channels dug alongside to whisk the flood water to other rivers, and in turn to lakes. He came upon the idea by using the native intelligence of Villages along the river. The King was mighty impressed by his diligence and passed on the throne to him. And Da Yu founded the Xia Dynasty, the first in China.

The fifth is the Mesoamerican Civilizations flourishing around 1,500 BCE in present day Mexico and Central America. They were advanced interconnected societies known for majestic architecture, complex calendars, astronomy and writing systems. The harboured the Olmec, Maya, Zapotec, and Aztec cultures and Empires.

The sixth is the Andean Civilization of South America. They stretched down the spine of the Andes Mountain range from Southern Colombia to Ecuador and Peru. The Caral or Norte Chicho Civilization of coastal Peru is the most ancient dating back to 3,500 BCE. It relied on maritime-coastal fishermen- and agricultural resources- inland trade. It is best known for awe-inspiring architecture. The site of Caral contains six large pyramids, structures with the largest measuring over 60 feet. They lacked writing or pottery but used a system called quipu – knotted textiles- for record keeping. They were largely peaceful with not much evidence of warfare. The Andean Civilization like the other pristine civilizations developed independently of external influences. They are noteworthy for domesticating a wide variety of crops such as potatoes, peppers, peanuts, manioc(cassava), chocolate and coca. They figured out irrigation systems for desert farms. They were also known for building an extensive road system and textile weaving.

Kingdoms & Empires

Going back to the Fertile Crescent, and diving into the world of early Kingdoms, in the region covering much of Canaan (modern-day Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Jordon) the Ancient Kingdom of Israel emerged. It was established around 1,020 BCE, formed by uniting 12 tribes as a United Monarchy under King Saul; consolidated under King David; and expanded under King Solomon before splitting around 922 BCE, into Kingdom of Israel in the north and the Kingdom of Judah in the south (according to the Hebrew Bible). The northern kingdom lasted until its conquest by Assyria in 721 BCE. The ancient Israel religion was known as Yahwism, which is a predecessor to Judaism. It began as polytheism and shifted towards monolatry. Yahweh was the primary deity. Judaism is the world’s oldest Abrahamic religion, and the way of life is based on the Torah- the compilation of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible. It is based a covenant between God and the Jewish people.

After the fall of the Akkadian Empire, came the Assyrian Empire (900 to 600 BCE). The Assyrian King Ashurbanipal was its last great king and was known as one of the most barbaric rulers of his time. But one of his greatest achievements is the construction of the Library of Ashurbanipal -a collection of texts and documents of various genres, perhaps comprising over 100,000 texts at its height. It was not surpassed until the construction of the Library of Alexandria, several centuries later. The Assyrians used new warfare techniques to win wars and conquer lands. They paved the way for the foundation of the Achaemendian Empire by Persia’s, Cyrus the Great.

Cyrus’s reign defined the history of Iran for well over a millennium and future Persian empires often viewed the Achaemenid era with respect and as the ideal example to emulate. To this end, he remains a cult figure in modern Iran, with his tomb serving as a spot of reverence for millions of the country’s citizens. When Alexander the Great conquered Persia and passed by his damaged tomb he stayed a long time, thoughtfully looking at the inscribed words (in Persian), “…I am Cyrus the Founder of the Persian Empire. Envy me not the little earth that covers my body” and promptly ordered the tomb to be repaired. Darius the Great, who followed Cyrus was known for his administrative genius, building great projects, and his benevolence toward the diverse peoples in his rule.

Ancient Persia gave the world one of the oldest continuously practiced monotheistic faiths, Zoroastrianism. It was founded by Prophet Zoroaster and centres around worship of one God- the Creator- Ahura Mazda. It emphasizes a cosmic struggle between good and evil urging humanity to choose ‘Asha’ (truth) through good thoughts, good worship, and good deeds. Wow, awfully simple to follow!

Meanwhile, the Ancient Greek Civilization was getting its foot-hold in Greece, limping out of its Dark Ages (1200 – 800 BCE) which saw collapse of its civilization. The Greek civilization, arising around the 8th century BCE, was a foundational Western culture. Known as the birthplace of democracy (specifically in Athens), it was a collection of competitive Aegean City-States like Athens and Sparta that shared a language and religion. Much of the world’s cultural heritage descends from a very small population of landowners, farmers, and sailors during a surprisingly short space of time. They organized themselves into a radically democratic government, held as a high ideal the dignity and freedom of an individual free man, produced sculpture and architecture, which set the standards by which these arts are still measured. And they laid the foundations of much of the World’s philosophy, mathematics and sciences through great thinkers such as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Pythogoras, Euclid, and Archimedes. It also saw the origin of Theatre, the Olympic Games, and advanced epic poetry such as Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey. Ancient Greeks had a pantheon of Gods led by 12 Olympians: Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Ares, Hephaestus, Aphrodite, Hermes, and Dionysus who resided on Mount Olympus in Greece.

The Persian Empire came to an end with the rise of Macedon, Greece, and foundation of the Kingdom of Macedonians by King Philip who himself had an extraordinary career in building his Kingdom. His son Alexander the Great went on to establish one of the largest Empires in history stretching from Greece to northwestern India. Alexander is considered one of history’s greatest and most successfully military commanders-in a career of about 20 years he never lost a single battle. He was tutored by the ancient Greek Philosopher, Aristotle. The story goes that whenever news was brought that his father Philip had captured a Town or won a great battle, Alexander would worry, “My father will go on conquering until there is nothing extraordinary left for you and me to do”. Alexander brought The Achaemenid Persian Empire to a fatal end with the defeat of its last king, Darius III in the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BCE. The defeat led to the collapse of the Achaemenid Empire and Alexander was able to capture key Persian cities such as Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis. Alexander died young, at the age of 33, and in many ways he made the history of the world. The Greek Empire peaked in the 5th to 4th century BCE before being conquered by Rome in 146 BCE.

The Early Roman Empire was founded in 625 BCE as a City-State, in the areas of ancient Italy knows a Etruria and Latium. It went through a Period of Kings (ruled by about 6 Kings) phase, a Republican Rome phase (510 to 31 BCE) leading to the mighty Imperial Roman Empire after 31 BCE. I’ll cover the Roman Empire in the upcoming, next article.

About this time in the 5th Century BCE, Buddhism originated in India in the ancient Kingdom of Magadha- region in the Eastern Ganges Plain. Its founder Siddhartha Gautam, was born a Prince. He renounced his royal life, sought enlightenment through asceticism and meditation, and attained awakening (bodhi) under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya (in modern-day Bihar State of India).

To conclude this part of history, a quick story on numerals.

The system of numerals with the use of zero first originated in India. At that time its tremendous potential in science, mathematics, engineering and trade was not widely realised – not universalised. E.g. Archimedes struggled with a number system and had to invent one on his own to fit his ‘wild numbers’. He did not know about Indian numerals then. It was left to the Arab Scholars to embrace the Indian system brought to their lands by Arab Traders who travelled to India. Yet, it was not generally used in the Arab World until a thousand years later. Later medieval Europe adopted the Indian numerals from the Arabs – resulting in the misnomer ‘Arabic Numerals’. But then it took centuries for Indian numerals to come into everyday use – the way we use it today.

In summary, humans lived as:

Hunter-gatherers – about 290,000 years ago; Farming and a settled life – about 12,000 years ago; First Civilizations, Kingdoms, and Empires – about 5,500 years ago.

Each transition dramatically increased population, complexity, and environmental impact, shaping the world we live in today.

We are at the doorstep of the Roman Empire. Once the door opens we run through other Empires such as the Mauryas of India; building of the Great Wall of China, Genghis Khan, the Cholas…and the beginning of Christianity and Islam.

FREEWHEELING

About: A break free commentary on events on our Planet, anchored on the headline news of the world. Any comments beyond the storyline, are entirely mine, without prejudice -take it or leave it. This is a run of events from 30 November to 31 December 2025: War & peace; turmoil in Iran; humanitarian crisis in Sudan; cost of living crisis in Nigeria; and India news – especially about Thiruparankundram Temple in Tamil Nadu.

THE WORLD

December 2025 saw heightened geopolitical tensions, diplomatic efforts towards peace in ongoing conflicts, and military escalations, particularly in Europe and Asia. Many hostilities just meandered on, with probably the sole winners being the arms manufacturers and suppliers.

United States (US) President Donald Trump hosted Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy at his Mar-a-Lago Resort, Palm Beach, Florida, on 28th December, for talks on a potential peace deal. It appears that progress was made on 15-year US security guarantees for Ukraine, though territorial issues (with Russia) remained unresolved. Ukrainian negotiators agreed to 90% of a 20-point peace plan cooked by Ukraine, US negotiators, and European countries. A deal seems close at hand?

In Russia, President Putin’s residence came under a drone attack and Ukraine was accused of orchestrating it. This, amid ongoing Russian missile and drone strikes on Ukrainian cities. Meanwhile, the European Union approved a Euro 90 billion loan to Ukraine for defense funding.

In the Israel-Hamas conflict, Trump met Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu on 29th December, to discuss the next phase of the Gaza ceasefire (including international peacekeeping forces) and warned Iran of potential strikes.

Israel approved new West Bank settlements-pushing for more ‘Israel’.

The US military along with Jordan launched airstrikes on multiple sites, targeted ISIS in Syria, following attacks.

Iran is witnessing its largest unrest in three years. And the Government grapples with its most serious challenge in years. Chants of ‘mullahs must leave’ and ‘death to the dictator’ echoed across major Iranian cities as protesters clashed with security forces of the Ayatollah Ali Khamenei-led theocratic regime. The eruption of anger and turmoil has been fuelled by a collapsing Rial, record inflation, and years of sanctions, amid renewed American pressure.

The country’s currency, Rial, plummeted to a record low against the US dollar, and the head of the Central Bank resigned. While traders and shopkeepers rallied in Saadi Street in downtown Tehran as well as in the Shush neighbourhood near Tehran’s main Grand Bazaar. Recall, merchants at the market played a crucial role in the 1979 Islamic Revolution that ousted the monarchy and brought the present crop of Islamists to power.

Turkey and Armenia agreed to simplify visa procedures as a step toward normalising ties between the countries.

China conducted its largest military drills to date, Justice Mission 2025, encircling Taiwan with live-fire exercises, simulated strikes, and port blockades starting late December. This followed a major US arms package to Taiwan and came amid broader regional frictions.

Thailand and Cambodia held talks, mediated by China, to address border clashes. The Southeast Asian neighbours agreed on a ceasefire that took effect at noon on 27th December, stopping 20 days of fighting that killed at least 101 people and displaced more than half a million on both sides. The ceasefire included a halt to fighter-jet sorties, exchanges of rocket fire, and artillery barrages. The Thailand-Cambodia conflict was sparked by a skirmish in late May 2025, that left one Cambodian soldier dead. The incident stemmed from a long-running dispute over ownership of ancient temples and their surrounding land, and contributed to a broader escalation of tensions that later developed into sustained fighting.

The ongoing, seemingly, never-ending humanitarian crises in Sudan persisted with limited international attention (need someone to pay ‘attention to the matter’?) Over 30 million people, almost two thirds of Sudan’s population, are in need of humanitarian assistance. Almost 25 million people, are facing acute hunger, with 637,000 of these classified as on the brink of famine. The civil war erupted amid tensions over the integration of the Rapid Support Forces (RSF)-a Sudanese paramilitary force formerly operated by the Sudanese Government- into the Sudanese Army following the 2021 coup. It started with RSF attacks on government sites in Khartoum and other cities. The capital region was soon divided between the two factions.

Nigeria is experiencing severe security challenges, including a sharp rise in mass abductions of schoolchildren in the north, and ongoing insurgencies by groups like Boko Haram and the Islamic State West Africa Province (ISWAP). This instability, along with other factors, has led to a major hunger crisis, particularly in the northeast, and displacement of millions of people. Economically, the country faces its worst cost of living crisis in 30 years due to 2023 reforms, and has also seen issues like inflation and social unrest.

In late November, armed bandits kidnapped 303 children and 12 teachers from the St. Mary’s Private Catholic school in the country’s north-central Niger State. The students are both male and female, some as young as ten. About 50 managed to escape-soon after the abduction- and during December all students and teachers were released from captivity, first 100, then the remaining. Nigeria is home to some of the world’s largest Muslim and Christian populations with the northern region predominantly Muslim and the southern region largely Christian. Indigenous religions, such as those native to the Igbo and Yoruba ethnicities, are in the minority. The country’s Constitution guarantees freedom of religion.

Myanmar’s civil war intensified in late 2025, with the military junta facing significant setbacks against a unified resistance of Ethnic Armed Groups and People’s Defence Forces, losing control over vast territories, particularly in border areas, leading to major displacement, increased humanitarian needs, and the junta attempting to legitimise its rule through contested elections amidst escalating violence, airstrikes, and ground offensives. Over 3 million people have been displaced, and nearly half the population needs aid, with ongoing conflict disrupting lives and essential services. Triggered by the 2021 military coup, the war is a culmination of long-standing ethnic tensions and resistance to military rule. In essence, Myanmar is in a full-blown civil war where the military is losing ground and struggling to maintain control against a determined, though often fragmented opposition.

INDIA

India came up with a new Rural Employment Law: The Viksit Bharat – Guarantee for Rozgar and Ajeevika Mission (Gramin) (VB-G RAM G) Act, 2025, was enacted to replace MGNREGA (The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act), guaranteeing 125 days of wage employment per rural household. The Rural Development Ministry began coordinating with States to prevent fake demands during the transition.

The Election Commission extended the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in multiple states, amid opposition demands for discussions on voter lists and national security during the Winter Session of Parliament. The SIR is doing the job of weeding-out very well. For e.g., in Tamil Nadu, the Chief Electoral Officer said that 97.37 lakh names have been dropped from the electoral rolls under the categories of Absent, Shifted, and Dead.

India’s Supreme Court stayed the suspension of Kuldeep Singh Sengar’s (a former BJP MLA) life sentence in the Unnao Rape Case. The case is about the gang rape of a 17 year old girl in Unnao Uttar Pradesh State in June 2017. Kuldeep Singh was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment in December 2019.

The Supreme Court also put its earlier Aravalli Hills definition on hold amid environmental concerns and sought the opinion of an expert committee under the Union Environment Ministry for a fuller, comprehensive, definition. The aim is to prevent unregulated mining in ecologically sensitive areas. The criteria defined ‘Aravalli Hills’ as a landform with an elevation of 100 metres or above the local relief. Two or more such hills within 500 metres of each other constitute an ‘Aravalli Range’. The Aravalli Hills and Ranges are among India’s oldest geological formations stretching from Delhi through Haryana, Rajasthan, and into Gujarat, in a span of about 650-800km.

In business news, the Index of Industrial Production rose 6.7% in November 2025, a 25-month high, driven by manufacturing and capital goods. Australia announced duty-free access for all Indian exports from January 2026 under the ECTA’s (India-Australia Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement) third anniversary. India’s Lok Sabha passed a bill raising Foreign Direct Investment FDI in insurance to 100%. New Free Trade Agreement, including with New Zealand, were concluded amid global tariff challenges. The Reserve Bank of India stepped in with reductions in the repo rate to 5.25% in December, part of multiple cuts in 2025 supporting economic recovery. New Labour Codes were notified; Digital Personal Data Protection Act implemented.

People in India’s capital ‘continued to see pillar-mounted water tanks as UFOs’, as Delhi vanished under severe Air Pollution, recording its worst December Air Quality Index (AQI) since 2018 (average 349), with ‘severe’ levels persisting.

India’s largest (by passenger traffic and market share) Airline IndiGo faced massive disruptions in early December due to new flight duty rules, and fog, cancelling over 1,600 flights in a day. The Government promptly rolled back the new rules, and looking through the eyes of a stranded passenger in a Terminal Building, the Airline clearly showed the middle finger to the Government.

The Subramaniya Swamy Temple in Thiruparankundram Hill located in a suburb of Madurai, Tamil Nadu, is a Hindu temple dedicated to Hindu God Lord Murugan. It is one of the six abodes (Arupadai Veedu) of Lord Murugan, a set of foremost and sacred Hindu temples, dedicated to the Lord. The original temple was built by the Pandyas during the 6th century CE. It is a rock-cut temple carved into the side of a large monolithic hill. The temple is under the control of the Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments (HRCE) Department of the Government of Tamil Nadu. According to Hindu mythology, Lord Murugan killed the asura Surapadman at Tiruchendur and later married Deivanai, the daughter of Indra, at Thiruparankundram.

It is customary during the Festival of Karthigai Deepam– a ceremonial holy lamp-to light a lamp (and Diyas) at the Temple. For over a century, the lamp had been lit at a lower elevation near the Uchipillaiyar Temple to avoid the upper peak, which houses a Dargah (Sufi Shrine) containing the grave of Sultan Sikandhar Badushah. The temple’s hilltop includes an ancient Deepathoon pillar, and a year 1923 decree (upheld by the then Privy Council – now abolished, in 1949) confirmed the temple’s ownership of unoccupied portions of the hill.

In early December a petitioner approached the Madras High Court (Madurai Bench) seeking permission to light the lamp at the hilltop Deepathoon pillar, arguing that periodic rituals at the spot assert ownership rights. Justice GR Swaminathan issued an order directing the temple’s executive officer (under the HRCE) to light the lamp at the hilltop by 6pm that day, with Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) protection to ensure safety, emphasising that this would not infringe on the Dargah’s rights and that failure to act could lead to loss of temple claims. The judge stressed the importance of upholding Hindu devotees’ religious rights under the Indian Constitution.

The Tamil Nadu Government under the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), disobeyed the ruling by lighting the lamp only at the traditional lower spot, claiming no historical evidence supported hilltop lighting and that over 100 years of practice justified the lower location. Authorities failed to make arrangements for the hilltop ritual, blocked devotees from accessing the site, imposed prohibitory orders to prevent gatherings, which led to clashes between police and devotees attempting to comply with the order.

The temple administration filed an appeal against the directive on the same day, which the court viewed as a deliberate tactic to evade implementation, noting that the Dargah (the potentially affected party) did not appeal.

Later the High Court accepted contempt petitions against Madurai district authorities, including the District Collector, Superintendent of Police, and temple executive officer, for ‘wilful disobedience’. Justice Swaminathan sharply criticised the state for ‘cocking a snook’ at the court’s authority, stating that the breach was ‘deliberate’ and that defying judicial orders ‘sounds the death knell of democracy itself.’ He warned that no one is above the law, ordered the officials to appear personally to explain the violation, and permitted the petitioner and 10 associates to symbolically light the lamp at the hilltop under CISF escort to affirm the order. The court reiterated that administrative excuses like law and order concerns cannot override judicial directives unless stayed by a higher court, and condemned the actions as a gross infringement on Hindus’ fundamental rights.

Perhaps, taking a cue from IndiGo the Govt of Tamil Nadu looked at its fingers and showed the middle to the Courts. And did not implement the Court Order, a second time.

The worst part is India’s Opposition Members of Parliament moved to impeach Justice Swaminathan. The impeachment will fail because the Opposition does not have the numbers, but the attempt is to browbeat anyone who dares back Hindu rights. However, a group of 56 judges joined together to slam the ill-thought out move. Hope, a better sense of justice prevails in the new year.

I think the Govt at the Centre needs to find its backbone: it should unflinchingly dismiss a State Government that fails to honour a Court Order – not once but twice. Would not this lead to an anarchy stand where one says, “Why should I follow the Laws, Rules and Orders? I’ll appeal to God – wherever he is. Until then, wait”.

Normally, the rowdies on the street are the ‘traditional’ Rule-Breakers. Now, how can we allow a State Govt to become rowdyish? How can a Rule-Maker become a Rule-Breaker?

Lots to think about as we close down the year 2025. Mankind should solve more problems that it creates.

I’ll be transitioning to a newer way of spreading the news of the world in 2026. A forged-on-iron format is in the works. It will be worth the wait.

Happy New Year 2026. Take full responsibility for your life on Earth.

FREEWHEELING

About: A break free commentary on events on our Planet, anchored on the news of the world. Any comments beyond the storyline, are entirely mine, without prejudice -take it or leave it. This is a flight of events from 27 July 2025 to 14 August 2025: All kinds of wars; the great Cholas of India; the best of Chess, Football, and Cricket.

Wars: Tariff Included

US President Donald Trump continues his relentless one-minded drive on imposing tariffs on friends and foes alike, ostensibly to improve the US Economy by opening the flood gates of tonnes of cash flow into the country. This time it hit India when he signed an executive order slapping 25% additional tariff over the purchase of Russian oil. This is on top of the 25% tariff that Trump had previously imposed on India on 31st July, as part of the broader rollout of tariffs on more than 60 countries. This will come into effect on 27th August.With this, India faces at total of least 50 %-among the highest in the world. This will come into effect on 27th August. However, for goods shipped before 27th August previous tariff rates will apply until 17th September.

The tariff sledgehammer comes after days of Trump slamming India its purchase of Russian oil and accusing India of funding the Russian war on Ukraine. He said India remains the largest buyer of Russian oil along with China “at a time when everyone wants Russia to stop the killing in Ukraine”. With such purchases, he said India does not care “how many people in Ukraine are being killed by the Russian war machine”. Since Russia launched the full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, India has bought discounted Russian oil.

India hit back, exposing the hypocrisy and double-standards of the US and Europe. In a clear written statement, India pointed out that the Europe-Russia trade includes not just energy, but also fertilisers, mining products, chemicals, iron & steel and machinery, and transport equipment. The United States itself continues to import Russian uranium hexafluoride for its nuclear industry, palladium for its EV industry, fertilisers, as well as chemicals. India held that it began importing from Russia, in the first place, because traditional supplies from Europe were diverted to within Europe after the outbreak of the Russia-Ukraine War. And India works for the best interests of its people, just as the US does for its people.

On another front, India and the US are engaged in complex negotiations for a free trade agreement. As with trade deals with other countries such as the United Kingdom, India has sought to keep the politically sensitive agriculture and dairy sectors out of a deal, Trump has rejected the proposal and has pushed for their inclusion. He has also pushed for India to import genetically modified (GM) crops under the deal. India considers GM crops illegal.

In the ongoing physical wars, Israel is making plans to take complete control of Gaza City with its cabinet approving the intent. And the 50 hostages still remain in captivity. Meanwhile, Australia announced that it would recognise a Palestinian State in September.I would say that countries -including India -should announced that they would ‘de-recognise’ Palestine, if the 50 Israel hostages are not released by September.

Ukraine and Russia continue making fire and a Trump-Putin Summit scheduled to take place in Alaska on 15 August, hopes to break the ceasefire deadlock. Russia is expected to demand Ukrainian land for a peace deal, which Ukraine steadfastedly refuses. Trump would probably be ‘all ears’ on a listening exercise. And Putin is a tough customer.

The Great Cholas of South India

Indian history does not cut enough into the meat of the mighty Chola Dynasty of South India, which ruled for an unbelievable 1500 years, between 300 BCE and 1279 CE(AD)- one of the longest ruling dynasties in world history. They remain grudgingly unknown, and if at all in bits and pieces. The Cholas ruled Southern India in two stints as, the Early Cholas, and the Medieval or Imperial Cholas.

This is an attempt to shed bright sunlight, on the great Cholas, who considered themselves as descendants of the Sun.

Other names, in common use, for the Cholas are, Choda, Killi, Valavan, Sembiyan and Cenni.Killi comes from the Tamil ‘kil’ meaning dig or cleave- a digger or a tiller of the land. Valavan is connected with the Tamil ‘valam’ fertility and means owner or ruler of a fertile country. Sembiyan means a descendant of King Shibi – a legendary King whose self-sacrifice in saving a dove from the hot-pursuit of a falcon figures among the early Chola legends. The story flies like this, ‘As King Shibi sat in court one day, a sparrow sought refuge in his lap, while being chased by a falcon. The falcon demanded the King release the sparrow, as it constituted its means of subsistence. Accepting the falcon’s right, the King offered his own flesh in order to fulfil his sovereign duty of protecting his subjects’. The later Cholas claimed to have descended from King Shibi. The Tamil name for Shibi is Sembiyan, a name assumed by many Chola kings.

The Early Cholas ruled in Uraiyur (now Tiruchirapalli) and Kaveripattinam, Tamil Nadu, during the period 400 BCE to 200 AD. This includes the Sangam Period, which legendary literature reveals the first authentic evidence of the Chola dynasty. The Sangam is the literary gathering of Tamil poets and scholars who were first patronised by the Pandyan kings of Madurai. The Sangam era is significant in the development of early Tamil literature and provides valuable insights into the social, cultural, and political landscape of the period.

Going back in time, the earliest known Chola King was Kantaman, perhaps mythological, said to be a contemporary of the Hindu Sage Agastya, whose devotion is believed to have brought the River Kaveri into existence (from the water pot of Agastya). Then came the Chola King Dharmavarma who first developed the shrine of the Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple– A Vaishnavite shrine dedicated to Lord Ranganatha (a form of Lord Vishnu and his consort Ranganayaki – a form of Goddess Lakshmi) near present day Tiruchi. The temple is a thriving place of Hindu worship of Vaishnavism. Flooding of the River Kaveri destroyed the temple, and later, his descendant, King Killivalavan rebuilt the temple complex. The Temple site is on an island bounded by the Rive Kaveri and River Kollidam. Later Chola Kings built upon and expanded the Temple structure. The Temple is nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the oldest functioning religious complexes in the world.

In 190 AD Karikala Chola or, Karikala The Great, stands out, unsurpassed, along with another King Kocengannan. Karikala was the son of the great warrior Chola King Ilamcetcenni – of many beautiful chariots. Karaikala is mentioned as the descendant of a King who compelled the wind to serve his purposes when he sailed his ships on the great Oceans. ‘Karikala’ means ‘elephant feller’ or ‘charred leg’. He had charred his leg in a fire-accident while escaping when he was deposed and imprisoned. He then fought his way back to the throne to create History.

Karikala Cholan was one of the greatest kings during the Sangam Age in South India. He led the Chola empire successfully to unify the three South Indian kingdoms of Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas. Karikala gained immense wealth trading with the Roman Empire, which he used to fund his military campaigns and to build towns and cities. He is known for decorating his capital city of Kanchipuram with gold, but his legendary act of fame was building, ‘The Grand Anicut’ – Kallanai Dam – on the River Kaveri.

Kallanai Dam is a massive dam of un-hewn stone, 329m long, 20m wide, and 4.5m high built across the main stream of the River Kaveri. It is the oldest water-diversion or water-regulating structure in the world, which is still in use. The dam cleverly diverts the waters of the Kaveri River across the Thanjavur delta region for irrigation through a canal system which originally irrigated near about 69,000 acres. In the 18th century, the Kallanai Dam was modified with hydraulic structures and now, after such alterations, irrigates over one million acres.

Upon the end of the Sangam Era, in the period from 300 AD to 600 AD there is almost a total black-out of the history of Southern India, Tamil Nadu in particular. Elsewhere, during this time in India, the Gupta Empire was established and flourished, rising to great heights. Kalidasa, the author of Shakuntala, was a poet in the Gupta court. Mathematician Aryabhata lived in the period. Zero was invented. The ancient Gupta text Kamasutra by Indian scholar Vatsyayana, in Sanskrit, came into being. Nalanda University was established. Chess was developed during this time. Meanwhile, outside India, Islam came into being in the sixth century AD.

Then in the eight century, the Cholas rose from obscurity to hit the headlines, again. Vijayalaya Chola, a descendant of the Early Cholas founded the Imperial Chola Empire in 848 AD, finding his own ground in the then ongoing conflict between the Pandya and Pallava Empires. He captured Thanjavur and made it his capital. His son Aditya-I teamed-up with the Pallavas to defeat the Pandyas of Madurai in 885 AD, and later went-on to defeat the Pallavas themselves. In 925, Aditya’s son Parantaka-I conquered Sri Lanka. Then there was a mild set-back with Cholas’ heir apparent Rajaditya Chola killed in battle. Subsequently, the Cholas quickly found their feet, and recovered power during the reign of Parantaka II (Sundara Chola). Sundara Chola had three children, crown Prince Aditya Karikalan (Aditya -II), Princess Kundavai and Prince Arumozhivarman (the future Raja Raja Chola I) the youngest. The Cholas, under the command of fearsome Aditya-II, defeated the Pandyas and further expanded the kingdom. Aditya-II died under mysterious circumstances -he may have been assassinated. On the death of Sundara Chola, his brother’s son Madhurantakan was crowned King with the title Uttama Chola. Arumozhivarman ascended the throne in mid 985 AD and adopted the regal name Raja Raja, meaning ‘King among Kings’.

The story of Arumozhivarman is the plot of the famous novel Ponniyin Selvan by Tamil author Kalki, which to a great extent brought out and kept alive the story of the Cholas.The story ran through real historical sites and galvanised interest in the Cholas.

When Raja Raja Chola -I came to power, he inherited a small kingdom centred around the Thanjavur–Tiruchirappalli region, the heart of traditional Chola territory.

And under Raja Raja -I and his son Rajendra I, the Chola Empire reach its Imperial state. At its peak, the empire stretched from the northern parts of Sri Lanka northwards to the Godavari–Krishna river basin, up to the Konkan coast, the entire Malabar Coast, in addition to Lakshadweep and the Maldives islands. The Cholas wielded a formidable navy, securing extensive maritime routes and expanding their influence into South East Asia.

Rajaraja Chola I was a dynamic ruler who applied himself to the task of governance with the same diligence and zeal he had shown in waging wars. He integrated his empire into a tight, administrative grid under royal control and strengthened local self-government. In 1000 AD, Raja Raja conducted a land survey to effectively marshal his empire’s resources. He built the iconic Brihadeeswarar Temple, in Thanjavur, in 1010. Raja Raja Chola died of natural causes in 1014 AD, after ruling for 30 years, and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola-I.

Rajendra Chola-I took off from the strong shoulders of his illustrious father, scaling even greater heights and is easily the greatest Chola King who ever lived.

Rajendra conquered Odisha and his armies continued north into Bengal, and reached the Ganges river in northern India. Rajendra successfully invaded the Srivijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia, which led to the decline of that empire. This expedition left an indelible impression on the Malay people of the medieval period where his name is mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan. Rajendra’s territories included the Ganges–Hooghly–Damodar basin, as well as Sri Lanka and the Maldives. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty. Diplomatic missions were sent to China in 1016, 1033, and 1077. Rajendra Chola commanded the largest blue water navy in Indian history, which he used it effectively to subdue Srivijaya, a southeast Asian kingdom that lay 3000 km away.

Realising that the traditional Chola capital of Thanjavur was literally bursting at the seams, and could not hold his dreams, Rajendra built himself a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram, which served as the Chola capital for the next 250 years. He built the Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple in 1025 AD, symbolising Chola victory over the northern kingdoms and the successful Gangetic conquest. To anoint his new capital city with water from the sacred River Ganga he sent his army on a long expedition from Thanjavur all the way to modern day Bangladesh. His army defeated many kingdoms en route, and brought back water from the Ganga. He poured this holy water into a lake he built, the Chola Gangam, one of the largest manmade lakes in India. Gangaikonda Cholan literally means the Chola king who conquered the (plains of) River Ganga. Born on 26 July 971 AD, Rajendra Chola died in 1044 AD at age 73.

Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple is a masterpiece of Chola architecture with unmatched architectural grandeur, embodying spiritual and cultural brilliance. It reflects Dravidian temple architecture with an emphasis on vertical elevation, axial symmetry, and Shaiva symbolism. It is inspired by the Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur (built by Rajaraja Chola I), but with a shorter yet broader vimana (temple tower). Elaborate sculptural friezes, including depictions of Shiva in various forms, sophisticated hydraulic engineering in temple tank design, showcasing advanced water management techniques, subtle Tamil inscriptions in Grantha (script) and Tamil scripts, preserving Tamil heritage. That the temple is a UNESCO World Heritage site, is a testament to the Chola dynasty’s power and architectural prowess.

Both Saivism (worship of Lord Shiva) and Vaishnavism (worship of Lord Vishnu) flourished during the Chola period. A number of temples were built with the patronage of Chola kings and queens, which remained centres of economic activity.

Much of Tamil classical literature and the greater Tamil architectural monuments belong to the Sangam period, which also saw a revival of Shaivism and the development of southern Vaishnavism.

During the reign of Rajendra Chola, the Chola Empire reached its zenith in the Indian subcontinent; it extended its reach via trade and conquest across the Indian Ocean, making Rajendra one of only a few Indian monarchs who conquered territory beyond South Asia.The Chola fleet represented the peak of ancient Indian maritime capacity. The 1,000-year legacy of the Bhakti movement, maritime diplomacy, and temple-based urban culture that flourished under the Chola Empire.

Around 1070, the Cholas began to lose almost all of their overseas territories but the later Cholas (1070–1279) continued to rule portions of southern India. The Chola empire went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandya dynasty, which ultimately caused the Chola’s downfall.

Now, coming over to the present.

India celebrated, with gusto, the millennium birth anniversary of Rajendra Chola-I on 26 July along with the Aadi Thiruvathirai Festival held between 23rd July and 27th July 2025 at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, near Jayankondam, Ariyalur District, Tamil Nadu.

India’s Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated the celebrations and brought back focus and much deserved ‘attention to the matter’ on the great Cholas. He repeated the Rajendra Chola act of bringing holy water from the Ganges.

Here is a more detailed essay on the outstanding, mind-boggling contribution by the Cholas in art, architecture, and literature. Also to kindle your interest on the unforgettable Cholas. Sit back, and enjoy a time-machine return to India’s magnificent, ancient history.

The Chola reign marked a stupendous golden era in South India, blending religion, culture, and craftsmanship in monumental structures and intricate sculpture. The Cholas mastered metalworking techniques and perfected the art of bronze casting, producing precision detailed sculptures, particularly of deities. The iconic Nataraja sculpture of Lord Shiva, in the cosmic dance pose, is globally recognised for its depiction of motion and balance. Artisans realistically portrayed human figures, capturing physical beauty and emotional expression: the bronze figure of Sambandar – a child saint – is a testimony to this; the bronze figurines of Parvati (the consort of Lord Shiva) and Lord Vishnu showcase skill in representing ornate details such as garments and jewellery.

Art was deeply intertwined with religious themes, portraying complex symbolism in sculptures. The Ardhanareeshvara sculptures, which depict Shiva as half male and half female, symbolise the unity of opposites.

The Chola temples are adorned with magnificent sculptures that portray scenes from mythology and religious epics.The Brihadeeshwara Temple,Thanjavur, features numerous intricate carvings of gods, dancers, and animals. Chola art influenced classical Indian dance forms, particularly through depiction of divine dancers. The Nataraja in ‘Ananda-Tandava’ pose inspired traditional Bharatanatyam dance forms.

Chola art frequently depicted scenes from mythological texts, helping to preserve and propagate religious stories through visual art. Sculptures from the Airavatesvara Temple at Dharasuram, Kumbakonam, show scenes from the lives of saints and deities.

The Cholas perfected the Dravidian style of temple architecture, characterised by towering vimanas or gopurams (towering gateway structures at entrance of Hindu temples) The Brihadeeshwara Temple is a masterpiece of Chola temple architecture, standing as one of India’s largest temples.

The Cholas introduced gopurams – probably first thought of by the Pallavas but developed by the Cholas and later made better and bigger by the Vijayanagar Dynasty – that became an iconic feature of South Indian temples. Chola temples are known for their massive scale and advanced engineering techniques, especially in the construction of monoliths. The granite monolith of Nandi at Brihadeeshwara Temple weighs over 20 tons and is an engineering marvel. Cholas innovated by using both stone and brick in temple construction, allowing for more elaborate designs and stronger structures: again, the Airavatesvara Temple is a prime example.

Chola architecture extended its influence beyond India, particularly in Southeast Asia: The temples of Angkor Wat in Cambodia portray features reminiscent of Chola architectural styles, reflecting their global influence. The Cholas incorporated water management systems like temple tanks and reservoirs into their temple complexes: the pushkarinis (a stepped temple tank) at Gangaikonda Cholapuram were essential for ritual purification and water conservation: The Chola architectural style laid the foundation for later South Indian dynasties, particularly the Vijayanagar Empire, which continued and expanded on Chola architectural innovations, especially the lofty gopuram style.

The Cholas, through their unparalleled contributions to art and architecture, left a legacy that continues to inspire admiration. Their innovations in bronze sculpture, religious iconography, and monumental temple architecture elevated the Dravidian style to its peak, influencing future generations. Although the Chola empire has faded, their artistic achievements remain immortal, showcasing the artistic and architectural brilliance of medieval South India.

The Cholas patronised and advanced Tamil literature, fostering distinguished poets like Kalladanar(Kalladar), Kamban, and Avvaiyar. Kalladanar’s Kalladam (of Lord Muruga) celebrated Lord Shiva, while Thiruttakkadevar’s Seevaka Cinthamani (one of 5 great Tamil Epics) introduced Jainism to Tamil audiences. The epic is the story of a Prince who is a perfect master of all arts, perfect warrior, and perfect lover.

Despite the Chola rulers’ support for Sanskrit, original Tamil works thrived, with Poet Kamban translating Valmiki’s Ramayana – as Kamba Ramayana- enriching Tamil literature’s evolution.

In the beginning of 10th century, a Nayanmar saint Nambi Aandar Nambi wrote the ’Tiruttoonar Tiruvandhadhi, which is a memoir on the lives of the 63 Nayanmars (Tamil Saivite Saints). In 11th century, Nambi Aandar Nambi as the court poet of Raja Raj Chola compiled the hymns of the Nayanmar saints in Tirumurai, which is considered to be one of the greatest text of Nayanmar saints. The Tamil ‘Naalayira Divya Prabandham’ – 4000 divine verses- was composed by Alvar Poigai during the Chola reign. Rajaraja I was instrumental in bringing back Thevaram (the first seven volumes of the Tirumurai, a collection of devotional poetry dedicated to Lord Shiva) in the Shaiva tradition.

Classical dances like Bharatnatyam flourished during the Chola period primarily due to the Devadasi system. Cholas also patronised the bamboo staff fencing marital art Silambam. The representation of Nataraja or Adal Vallan (king of dance) in the form of the idol was the motif of Tamil music, dance and drama with hymns composed by Nayanmars. e.g. Oduvars and Padikam Paduvars: They were appointed to sing in the temples to recite Thirumurai.

The Cholas decentralized administration, allowing local leaders and village assemblies (sabhas) to exercise autonomy. This allowed the empire to maintain control over vast territories while fostering strong local governance. The Kudavolai system was used for local elections. It involved writing names of eligible candidates on palm leaves, which where then dropped into a pot and drawn out by a young boy -selecting representatives.

On the commerce front, Ports like Nagapattinam became thriving centres of international trade, with the Cholas exporting textiles, spices, and jewels.

That’s a breathtaking history of the Great Cholas.

Flash Floods

A massive cloudburst triggered heavy rains and flash floods in the northern Indian state of Uttarakhand. A flood of water came down, swelling the Kheerganga river and sending tonnes of muddy waters gushing downwards on the hilly terrain, covering roads, buildings and shops in Dharali Village – a tourist spot populated with hotels, resorts and restaurants.

Sports

India’s Chess International Master (IM) Divya Deshmukh all of 19 years, won the 2025 FIDE Women’s World Cup beating fellow Indian Grand Master (GM) Humpy Koneru in the tiebreaks. Through this victory she also achieves GM status- and a new star is born. She is now the 44th woman to hold the GM title. It was a magnificent feat for the talented and mentally tough Divya.

Divya Deshmukh was born in Nagpur, Maharashtra and hails from a Marathi family. Her parents are both medical doctors.

England’s Women earned its place in women’s football history with a stunning penalty-shootout victory over Spain to retain their European title at Euro 2025, on 27 July. Chloe Kelly, who scored the iconic winner at UK’s Wembley Stadium in the final of Euro 2022, was the hero again as she converted the decisive spot-kick to seal victory after Spain had missed three in a row – England’s goal-keeper saved two of them. It is the first time an England team has won a major trophy on foreign soil – at St. Jakob-Park in Basel, Switzerland -and seals manager Sarina Wiegman’s status as one of the world’s greatest with her third successive European title – achieved with two countries.

England’s Men came close to the winning ways of the women but India stole their thunder. The enthralling 2-2 draw for the Anderson-Tendulkar Trophy between England and India provided a dramatic start to the new cricket World Test Championship cycle. It was an epic contest, each of the five Tests going into the final day, four in fact into the final session, providing some of the best individual and collective performances the five-day format has seen in recent years.

Cricket pundits had predicted a clean sweep for England, what with the home advantage and India’s pre-series struggles. Whitewashed 0-3 at home by New Zealand, followed by a 3-1 drubbing by Australia down under in two preceding series, India looked vulnerable and wobbly.

The England-India Test series was a five Test one. And with the 4th Test at Old Trafford, Manchester ending in a draw India came to the Oval in London trailing England 1-2 in the series. But then India won by six runs to level the series 2-2 in one of the most dramatic conclusions in Test Cricket history. England were denied a record-breaking run chase by an irresistible India.

How India held their nerve under immense pressure – driven by willpower, ambition, and skill – culminating in a thrilling comeback to win and level the series, is one of Test cricket’s most riveting tales. It also marks this Indian young team’s transition from apprehension and misgivings one of rich promise fuelled by ambition and excellence. The future looks bright for this Indian team.

More captivating stories blending the past with the present, coming-up in the weeks ahead. Stay with Freewheeling.